Design of Photovoltaic Systems A . K. Mukerjee Chief Scientific Officer (Retired) Centre for Energy Studies Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi New Delhi – 110016.
A Typical PV System PV ARRAY
DC LOAD
Conditioner
DIODE BATTERY
AC LOAD
GRID
etc.
Power
FANS, LAMPS
Introduction
IN V E R T E R
Construction of PV Array
1. PV Array consists of several Modules 2. Single, polycrystalline or amorphous silicon 3. Packing Factor
Losses 1.
2.
The transmission of the radiation is reduced because of reflection of the protective glass sheet on top and absorption in it, and The packing factor. That is, the entire area of the module is not covered by the solar cells but there are large gaps between the adjacent solar cells.
Space Wasted by Round Solar Cells
Suppose that the radius of the cells is r. Then the total area required to place four cells is: At = (2r + 2r) X (2r+2r) = 4r X 4r = 16r2 …………..(1) However, the area covered by the four cells, the cell area, is: 4X (π r2) = 4 πr2. Therefore, the ratio of the cell area to the total area At, is: 4 πr2 /16r2 = π/4 = 0.7854.
Connection of Array T1 R1
R2
A1
R3
B1
R4
C1
D1
A2
B2
C2
D2
A3
B3
C3
D3
S1
S2
S3
T2
Figure 4. A typical array of solar modules with bypass diodes.
Bypass Diodes
If a module in a string fails due to some reason, or comes under the shadow of some object then the current in that module will reduce drastically and will limit the current from the other two which pass through it. In short the current through a string will reduce. In such a case the bypass diode associated with that module will allow the current to pass through itself. For example if module D2 fails then S2 will bypass the current generated by D1 and D3.
Hot Spot Formation 1. 2.
Hot spots in a module. A module consists of a large number of solar cells connected in series. If one cell is shaded and the module is either short circuited or connected to a heavy load then the current from the other cells will cause i2R heat to be generated in it. The cell under shadow will present a high resistance.
Hot Spots (continued) 1.
2.
3.
The other nine cells will approach open circuit voltage Voc This Voc will then be applied across the shaded cell and force a current in the reverse direction This will not only reverse bias the junction, which may cause a breakdown, but also force the current through its combined series and shunt resistors, R = (Rs + Rsh)
Hot Spot in Shaded Cell
Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell
The power conditioner The power conditioner has two parts: 1. The maximum power point tracker, and 2. The battery charge/discharge controller
The Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT)
Converters and Algorithms 1. Buck Converter based MPPT 2. Boost Converter based MPPT Common Algorithms for Converters 1. Perturb and Observe (P&O), and 2. Incremental Conductance
Block Diagram of MPPT
Microcontrollers and DSPs
A Typical P & O Algorithm
A 2.2kW MPPT Response Curve
The response time of a buck based MPPT with P&O algorithm VOC
VMPP
Battery charge/discharge controller Note:
Temp. Comp. at B+ = 14.56 mV/C (16.13mV/C) Float Charging = 14.5 V Load disconn. = 11.5 V Load Re-conn. = 12 V
1N 5822 F1
D1 +
2
B+
D3
SW 1A
100 25V
1
1N 5822
To L2
C1
D2
PV+
1
47K
(1N 4148)
1N 4007
1
22K 2K2)
U1A LM324
OUT
D8 -
4 5
2
2
R11
39K 1%
R5
1M
R10
270
8K2
2K2
5K6
R15
R7
4K7
R13
U2B LM324
D10 OUT
7
3V3 D11
-
D9
39K 1%
1N 4148
R17
Green
C2
LED
(Charging) R14
0.01
1K
R8
6
+
V+
5K6
1
B-
R12
2K2
11
R3
R4
3
2M2
8K2 1%
3
R2
V+
D5
V-
D4
R1
+
R18
R16
R6
(8K2) 10K
11
2
4
3
8K2 1%
R9
D7 to D14 8 * 1N 4148
1N 4148
MTP 2955 E
V-
1N 5822
1K8
PVC3
0.1 R22
22K
U3C LM324
OUT
R26
2
4K7
R25
2K7
C4
11 13
5V
12
U4D LM324 +
D14
RED
1K8
0.01 OUT
3V3
LED
47K
0.1
R29
C5
R28 14
1
SW 1B
2
R30
2K2
1
R21
18K/1% R19
2K7
R20
18K/1%
R23
10K
R27
270K
BC107A 2 D15
3 Q1 1
4V7
C7
0.01
4
4
+
V+
10
8
3
-
V-
R24
V-
11 9
D13
Battery Low
12K
D12
V+
LM 385 - 2.5V
Charge Controller for CFL 5W/7W based Lantern
TO CT OF TRANSFORMER BASE WINDING
A Lead Acid Battery
Chemical Equations
For charging: the cell the positive terminal of a DC voltage, higher than that of the cell, is applied to the anode with the negative end attached to its cathode. The governing chemical equations are:
1. PbSO4 + 2H2O PbO2 + 4H+ +SO42- + 2e- At the anode, and
2. PbSO4 + 2eAt the Cathode
Pb + SO42-
Discharging: The equations at the anode and the cathode become:
PbO2 + 4H+ + SO42- + 2e2H2O
PbSO4 +
And,
Pb + SO42-
PbSO4 + 2e-
Charge Versus Rate of Discharge
Life Cycles Versus Discharge
Design of a 1 kW Stand Alone Photovoltaic Power Supply 1. Average power output = 1 kW into a DC load at a DC voltage of 108 Volts 2. Duration of operation = 24 hours/day 3. Average time of sunlight available = 8 hours/day 4. Number of sunless days = 2/week 5. Peak value of insolation in Delhi = 900 Watts/meters2 6. Maximum depth of discharge of battery = 50 % 7. Array should have a fixed tilt of 28 Deg. For Delhi
Block diagram of the 1 kW PV power supply
For DC loads only MPPT DC LOAD
PV ARRAY
CHARGE/ DISCHARGE CONTROLLER
BATTERY
FANS, LAMPS etc.
DIODE
Assumptions
The following assumptions have been made: The electrical efficiency of the circuit of the MPPT = 90 % The charge/discharge cycle efficiency of the battery (assuming new ones) = 90 % The diode is usually a built-in part of the MPPT and therefore neglected. However it is necessary to save the circuit from accidental input voltage inversion. Wiring and cabling will introduce another 5 % loss.
Calculations
The energy requirement for 7 days will be calculated below. Power required = 1000 Watts Therefore, energy needed for 7 days = 1000 W X 24 Hr X 7 days = 168,000 Watt – hours. For an 8 hour sunlit day the energy given directly to the load is: 1000 W X 8 Hr X 5 Days = 40,000 W – Hr -------------------- A1 Since sunlight is available for only 5 days.
Calculations (Continued)
Hence, the rest of the energy must be stored in and supplied by the battery bank. This energy is: 168,000 – 40,000 = 128,000 W – Hr --------A2 Again, the charge – discharge efficiency of the battery bank is 90 %. Therefore, the energy supplied to the battery is: 128,000/0.9 = 142,222 W – Hr -------------------A3
The size of the battery bank
If the voltage of the battery bank is 108 Volts, as desired, then its charge is: 1, 42,222 W - Hr/108 V = 1316.87 Ampere – hours.-------- B1 Since it is assumed that the batteries must retain 50 % of the charge after discharge, their charge holding capacity must be twice this value. That is: Total charge = 1,316.87 X 2 = 2,633.75 A – Hr------------B2
Battery Sizing (Continued) 1. For 108 volts a string of 9 batteries, of 12 volts each, must be used. 2. The charge capacity of each battery must be: 3. 2633.75 A - Hr/9 = 292.6 A – Hr.-----------B3 4. In case 300 A - Hr batteries, which are rare, are not available then two strings of 9, 150 A – Hr ones may be connected in parallel
Series – Parallel Connection CHARGE CONTROLLER
D 1
D 2
B T5
12
B T1
12
D 3
1
1
D 4
B T6
12
12
B T2
12
B T7
12
B T3
From MPPT
B T8
2
2
B T4
DISCHARGE CONTROLLER TO LOAD
Diodes D1 , D2 ,D3 and D4 1. At 108 volts the load current is: 2. 1000 W/108 V = 9.26 Amperes -----B4 3. Nominal voltage, during conduction, across them is 0.7 Volt. 4. Therefore both the diode will dissipate 9.26 A X 0.7 V = 6.8 Watts -----B5
Dissipation in Diodes 1. Each diode will conduct half the current of 9.26 Amperes, that is, 4.63 Amperes 2. Each diode, with 100 % overrating, should be 10 amperes, 200 volts 3. Energy Consumed by Diodes: 6.8 W X 24 hrs X 7 days = 1,142.4 W – Hr -------------- B6
Dissipation in D3 & D4 Energy passing through D3 & D4 is: 1. 40,000 W – Hr +1, 42,222 W – Hr = 1, 82,222 W – Hr --------- B7 2. This energy is passed in: 8 hours X 5 days = 40 hours -------------B8 3. Hence the power is: 1, 82,222 W – Hr/40 Hr = 4,555.55 Watts -------------- B9 4. This amounts to: 4,555.55 W/108 V = 42 Amperes --------------- B10
Power loss in D3 & D4 (Continued) 1. The voltage drop across the diodes is 0.7 Volts. 2. Therefore the power dissipated in D3 and D4 is: 42 A X 0.7 V = 29.53 Watts 3. Therefore energy consumed is: 29.53 W X (8 Hours X 5 days) = 1181 W – Hr --------------- B11
Total Array Energy 1. Thus the energy consumed by the four diodes is: 1,142.4 W – Hr + 1,181 W – Hr = 2,323.4 W – Hr ------------------ B12 2. This must be supplied by the PV array. Therefore the total array energy rises to: 40,000 W – Hr +1, 42,222 W – Hr + 2,323.4 W - Hr = 1, 84,545.4 Watt – hours -----B13
Total Array Energy (Contd.) 1. This energy is given by the MPPT which itself has an efficiency of 90 %. Hence the energy delivered at the input of the MPPT from the array is: 1,84,545.4/0.9 = 2, 05,050.44 Watt – hours -------------- B14
Energy given to MPPT Input 1. As assumed earlier there is a 5 % loss in wiring and cabling, hence the output of the array should be: 2, 05,050.44 + (5 X 2, 05,050.44)/100 = 2, 05,050.44 + 10,252.52 = 2, 15,302.96 W – Hr----B15
. Array Size
This energy of 2, 15,302.96 W – Hr is to be generated by the array in 5 days with 8 hours of sunlight on each day. Hence the power of the array becomes: 2, 05,050.44 W – Hr/ (8 hr X 5 days) = 5126.25 Watts ------------------ C1
Daily Variation of Insolation
Modules are Rated at 1000 W/m2
Array Size
Average works out to: 0.635 X 900 W = 571 Watts ------C2 Therefore the total size of the array becomes from C1: 5126.25 Watts X 1000/571 = 8977.67 Watts ---------- C3
Electrical Parameters PM 150 2. Maximum Power Rating Pmax. (Wp)* 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
150.0 Minimum Power Rating Pmin (Wp)* 180.0 Rated Current IMPP (A) 4.80 Rated Voltage VMPP (V) 34.0 Short Circuit Current Isc (A) 5.0 Open Circuit Voltage Voc (V) 42.8
Number of Modules 1. Since these modules are calibrated at 1000 W/m2 their MPP value will reduce at 900 W/m2. The real MPP voltage will be then: 34 X 9/10 = 30.6 Volts -------------------C7 2. Therefore 3 modules in series will yield 91.8 Volts and the total number of modules required for the array: 8977.67 Watts/150 Watts (Wp) = 59.85 = 60 ----- C8 3. Number of strings, with each strings containing 3 modules is 60/3 = 20
Costing The cost of the components can be tabulated below: Solar module @ Rs. 200.00 per Watt = 8977.67 Watts X 200 = Rs. 17,95,534.00 18 batteries, 150 A – Hr, 12 Volts each @ Rs. 10,000.00 each = Rs. 1,80,000.00 MPPT and Charge/Discharge controller = Rs. 50,000.00_
Total Rs.20,25,534.00
=
Comparision
If a life time of 10 years is taken for the array and 5 years for the battery bank then the cost amounts to: Rs. 22, 05,534.00. In ten years the electricity produced is equal to: 1 X 24 hours X 365 days X 10 years = 87,600 kW-Hr. ------------- D1 Therefore the cost of this energy is: Rs. 22, 05,534/87,600 = Rs. 25.17 per kW – Hr --------------D2
Comparison (Continued) 1.
2.
3.
At present the cost of domestic electricity from the grid is Rs. 4.60 per kW – Hr Cost of electricity from Diesel = Rs. 12.50/unit If the life span of the PV array is taken to be 20 years, the PV generated power will compete with diesel generated power
The Additional Benefits of PV Power 1. Carbon credits, and 2. Lack of emission of polluting gases.
Design of Solar Pump 1.
The pump horsepower HP = (4.19 X 10-6) (GPD)(h) ---------- E1 (PT)(PTF)(η) GPD is the gallons per day to be pumped, PT is the pumping time, PTE is the pumping time factor, h is the effective height and η is the wire-to-water efficiency of the pump-motor combination.
Horsepower in MKS Units In MKS, the horsepower is given by HP = (3.658 X 10-6) (LPD)(h) ----E2 (PT)(PTF)(η) Where now LPD is the pumping requirement in liters per day h is the effective pumping height in meters.
Pumping Time Factor
Use of an MPPT in the system normally increases the daily volume pumped by an additional 20%. Hence, a reasonable default value for PTF when a MPPT is used is 1.2 if the pump is connected directly to the PV array, then the PTF will be 1.0.
Pump Efficiency
The wire-to-water efficiency, η, will be specified by the pump manufacturer. For fractional horsepower pumps, it is typically about 25% while larger pumps will be more efficient.
Numerical
Numerical: Specification for pumping system: Volume of water to be lifted = 2000 gallons/day. Water reservoir = 200 ft. underground Worst case peak Sun day = 6 hrs. PTF = 1 Peak Sun = 6 hrs. Assume pump efficiency = 25% Piping friction losses = 5%
Calculations
Therefore effective height = 200X 1.05 = 210 ft. Substituting in equation E1, pump HP = 1.17. However, the service factor is 25% for a 1HP motor which means that a 1 HP motor can operate at 1.25 HP without any damage to itself. 1.17 HP = 1.17 X 746W = 872.82 W. Pump Operating DC Voltage = 96 V
Solar Array Calculations
Since this is the load, the solar array wattage can be calculated as given in section C above. It is important to notice that the use of an MPPT in the system normally increases the daily volume pumped by an additional 20%. Therefore, the final array size will be less by 20%.
Design of a PV operated Pump
Thank You