Daniela
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ABSTRACT, GLSSOERY AND QUESTIONS FOR THE EXECUTIVE PROCESS ABSTRACT Contained below the title of the chapter on the presidency in Mary Kate Hiatt’s American Government text are these words, “Uneasy lies the Head that Wares the Crown.” This quote offers us a beginning in understanding the complex world of the presidency. The framers of the Constitution wanted an executive with diminished powers least he be like the “tyrant” George III. Still they sought an independent office with clear powers of its own, and with the necessary checks to control the other branches of government, especially that of the very power legislature. Of the first presidents most remained innocuous, but during the Twentieth Century events which alter the US status in the world altered the role of the president. Today, in many respects, the role of the executive branch shares equally with the legislature in the maintenance of constitutional checks and balances. GLOSSARY US Presidency/Executive- In Article Two of the Constitution we find the Executive Branch of government. The primary responsibility of this branch is to execute the laws passed by Congress. The Chief of the Executive Branch is the President of the US. Formal qualifications- There are only three expressed qualifications to be the President of the US. • Age- The minimum age of the President must be 35. • Place of birth- The President must be a native born American. In other words he/she must a US citizen by blood or soil. • Residency- He/she must be a US resident for the 14 years before becoming president. Informal qualifications or social characteristics- Certain similarities are very evident when we consider the individual who have become the US President. We will loon at sex, race/ethnicity, nationality, religion, martial status, and ideology. • Sex- All 44 presidents have been male. The popular campaign of Hillary Clinton in the 2008 presidential election may finally answer the quadrennial question, “Is America ready for a female president?” Many nations of the world have elected democratically female heads of government including Canada, France, Germany, India, Israel, Pakistan, the Philippines, and the United Kingdom. • Race and ethnicity- Again the campaign of 2008 provided the US with a first – the first African American elected president of the US. The previous 43 presidents were European American. Considering the racism that has pervaded American politics resulting in the restrictions of African Americans from voting let alone hold office this is an enormous alteration of tradition.
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Nationality- Of the previous 43 presidents, not only were their national ethnicity European American, but also northwest European American. In other words we are still waiting for our first president of Italian or Slavic heritage. Religion- Here we again have unanimity. All 44 presidents have been Christian. Forty-three of the presidents claim some sort of alliance with the Protestant branch of Christianity. The lone exception is John F. Kennedy who was a Roman Catholic. Martial status- As with all of the above American presidents, with one exception James Buchanan, were married. Their statuses did vary while president. For example Thomas Jefferson entered the White House and remained a widower. Andrew Jackson became a widower right before becoming president. Grover Cleveland got married while in the White House. Woodrow Wilson became a widower while in the White House, but remarried while serving as president. Ideology- Following the Madisonian systemic approach the presidents usually have either been moderates or work toward the middle while president. Successful presidents who maintained distinct ideology such as Franklin Roosevelt, a liberal, and Ronald Reagan, a conservative, both upset their core constituency by seeking support from political moderates.
The ranking of presidents- Political Scientists and Historians always show an interest in ranking the presidents. Beginning with the work of historian Arthur Schlesinger in the late 1940s, presidential experts conduct polls to evaluate the presidents. In these evaluations we find consistencies in their ranking. For example with regularity Abraham Lincoln rate as America’s finest president. George Washington and Franklin Roosevelt rate either second or third, although there are occasions where Franklin Roosevelt may dethrone Lincoln for the primary spot. We notice that many of the highly ranked presidents held the office rather recently or at least during the Twentieth Century. Among those from that list include Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Harry Truman, Dwight Eisenhower John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Ronald Reagan. Not to take away from the outstanding job these presidents may contributed, the role of the US in world affairs and the increasing importance of the national government may have something to do with these high rankings. On the negative side of the ledger we find the following as extremely sub par or abject failures: Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, Ulysses S. Grant, Warren G. Harding, and Richard M. Nixon. Presidential succession- Although the office of Vice President never represented a challenge its importance cannot be understated. The vice presidency is a heartbeat away from the president. According to the Constitution the Vice President is to succeed the President. The first time it needed to be done John Tyler accomplished it when he replaced the deceased William Henry Harrison. According to the Constitution Congress decides order of presidential secession. In 1947 Congress enacted legislation setting the line of secession after the Vice President. This established order places the Speaker of the House third, followed by the President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the Cabinet members beginning with the Secretary of State and continuing in the chronological order of the creation of the position. The
Twentieth Fifth Amendment, ratified in 1967, allows for a smooth transition in the secession process. For example it provides a method to keep the Vice Presidency occupied. This office will never lie vacant again. This lessens the need to use the 1947 secession law. The Vice Presidency- In truth the Vice Presidency was an afterthought. During the Constitutional Convention the office came into existence merely to make the Electoral College work. It became the consolation prize in the formal race for the Presidency. The constitutional duties of the office are slender to say the least. The Vice President is the President of the Senate, and votes there only to break a tie. Of course he/she remains a heartbeat away from the President. On nine occasions the Vice President has succeeded the President. The role of the Vice President depends upon the wishes of the President. Most of the time his/her duties are minor. One half-hearted description depicts the Vice President as traveling the world going to funerals of former presidents of the third world. Of the more important jobs he/she performs include an occasional advisor to the president, a fact finder for the president, an agency head, a political partisan, and an ombudsman, resolving lower level complaints. The roles of the President- As the old yarn goes “the President wears many hats.” We will look at six of these hats: Chief Executive, Commander-in-Chief, Chief Diplomat, Chief Legislator, Head of State, and Head of Political Party. • Chief Executive- The Constitution gives the President the power to appointment officials such as federal judges, diplomats and Cabinet members. Some of these appointments known as patronage are products of political paybacks. These typically are associated with ambassadors. With the passage of the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 Presidents are required to submit a budget for the forthcoming fiscal year. Although Congress has huge discretionary powers in this area, the President’s budget set his/her priorities. • Commander-in-Chief- The President, as a civilian, is the head of the armed forces. This provides a singular head over all the uniform services. This role produces the classic clash between the President and Congress. While the president has his/her authority the Congress must declare war. Nevertheless, most of the military actions taken by the President did not request a declaration of war. • Chief Diplomat- The President negotiates treaties with other nations, but the approval of this action depends on a two-thirds vote of the Senate. This too has sparked controversy. Presidents often make agreements with other heads of state. The Supreme Court ruled that it is an acceptable way of performing diplomacy. This expedient alternative to treaty making lasts only through the administration initiating it. Congress, through the Case Act, mandates that the President present the information about such an agreement to them within 60 days. The President, on behalf of the country, extends diplomatic relations to nations. Inherent powers of the US are enhanced by this function. • Chief Legislator- If we recall the legislative process the executive branch draws up the largest percentage of bills. In this way the staff of the
•
•
President influences the making of the laws of the country. Congressional legislation authorizes Presidents to execute legislative intention. This done by the issuing of executive orders. In a less direct way the President motivates the legislative approach by delivering his/her state of the union address. In this constitutionally mandated notice the President acknowledges his/her programs to Congress. The Constitution requires that an annual message go to Congress. However, since the time Woodrow Wilson the President has delivered the address in person. The President is required to send a budget message to Congress. He/she sends this to Congress about one week after the State of Union, sometime in early February. Finally the presidential power takes on legislative qualities when he/she engages in the signing or vetoing of legislation. Head of State- This is largely a ceremonial role. This position in many other nations as a separate office. In the United Kingdom this is the role of the monarchy. In Germany the President of the Republic fulfills this function. While a nominal position the President represents the nation, including its spirit, laws and people. This includes the initial greeting of governmental dignitaries from other nations. As well as the purely celebrative role of lighting the White House Christmas tree, or organizing the annual Easter Egg hunt. Head of political party- This President by virtue of his/her august position gains control of the political party which elected him/her. The way in which major parties are structured limit the authority of a hierarchy. It falls to the President to move forward and capture that authority. Not all Presidents ascend to this role with the equal desire to serve in this capacity. Often the success or failure in this role depends upon the degree to which the President identifies with his/her political party. Certain Presidents such as Franklin Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan strongly identified with their political parties, others such as Dwight Eisenhower, who it is said took non partisanship to an art form, and Jimmy Carter, who often made policy without consulting the leadership of his party, were marginal in this role.
The major offices of the executive- After World War II the needs of the country changed and the executive branch continued to grow and become more organizationally complex. We will review some of these changes in the executive, as well as define the role of the Cabinet. In this case we must take into account the changing needs of the modern presidency, and the growing importance of the office.
The Executive Office of the Presidency- Within this office we find the primary advisor policy makers of the Executive branch of government. These include the White House Office, office of the Management and the Budget, the Council of Economic Advisor and the National Security Council.
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•
White House Office- Many of the prominent presidential advisors and policy makers belong to this office. This includes the White House Chief of Staff, White House Counsel, speechwriters and press secretary. Office of Management and the Budget (OMB) - The lengthy process of drawing up a fiscal year budget covers a year and a half period. Those who are involved in this detailed process work in the OMB. They prepare the budget and work to have it enacted. Council of Economic Advisors-The Council of Economic Advisors works with the OMB. However, it remains a separate institution. Its influence depends on the President to whom it serves. Ronald Reagan paid it no heed while Bill Clinton saw it as a beneficial institution. When called upon the council helps analyze economic data and forecast economic growth, decline and stability. National Security Council (NSC) - A creation of the 1947 legislative act which altered the foreign policy and defense establishment, features a membership which includes the true security establishment. Those on the NSC include the President, Vice President, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Director, and the Chairman of the Joint Chief of Staff. This intriguing polyglot advises the President on matters of security, and offers, as best as possible a coordinated policy concerning defense and diplomatic polices.
The Cabinet- Although not specifically stated in the Constitution the Cabinet came into existence by the request of George Washington. Since the time of the first president these secretaries of major departments of government have grown substantially in quantity. The initial cabinet positions included Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Attorney General, and Secretary of War. In Washington’s time this gentlemen offered advice to the President as well as administrating their departments. From the beginning the President appointed Cabinet members and the Senate confirmed them. Through the years the size of the Cabinet has grown, but their advisor role has diminished. Today they are the head of their department, and meet as a united body with the President. They still lead advice to the President, especially concerning policy effecting their department. The initial four offices remained the entirety of the Cabinet until the middle part of the Nineteenth Century. The Cabinet grew to include the Department of the Interior and Agriculture. Later other cabinet position were included and later restructured, such as the Department of Commerce and Labor, which divided into separate departments. Another realignment occurred when the Department of Health, Education and Welfare became the Departments of Health and Human Services and the Department of Education.
QUESTIONS What are the common social characteristics of the President? Which Presidents are considered the greatest?
What are the various roles of the Vice President? List three of the roles of the President. What is the composition of Executive Office of the President? Explain how the Cabinet has evolved and changed over time?
• •
•
•
Nationality- Of the previous 43 presidents, not only were their national ethnicity European American, but also northwest European American. In other words we are still waiting for our first president of Italian or Slavic heritage. Religion- Here we again have unanimity. All 44 presidents have been Christian. Forty-three of the presidents claim some sort of alliance with the Protestant branch of Christianity. The lone exception is John F. Kennedy who was a Roman Catholic. Martial status- As with all of the above American presidents, with one exception James Buchanan, were married. Their statuses did vary while president. For example Thomas Jefferson entered the White House and remained a widower. Andrew Jackson became a widower right before becoming president. Grover Cleveland got married while in the White House. Woodrow Wilson became a widower while in the White House, but remarried while serving as president. Ideology- Following the Madisonian systemic approach the presidents usually have either been moderates or work toward the middle while president. Successful presidents who maintained distinct ideology such as Franklin Roosevelt, a liberal, and Ronald Reagan, a conservative, both upset their core constituency by seeking support from political moderates.
The ranking of presidents- Political Scientists and Historians always show an interest in ranking the presidents. Beginning with the work of historian Arthur Schlesinger in the late 1940s, presidential experts conduct polls to evaluate the presidents. In these evaluations we find consistencies in their ranking. For example with regularity Abraham Lincoln rate as America’s finest president. George Washington and Franklin Roosevelt rate either second or third, although there are occasions where Franklin Roosevelt may dethrone Lincoln for the primary spot. We notice that many of the highly ranked presidents held the office rather recently or at least during the Twentieth Century. Among those from that list include Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Harry Truman, Dwight Eisenhower John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Ronald Reagan. Not to take away from the outstanding job these presidents may contributed, the role of the US in world affairs and the increasing importance of the national government may have something to do with these high rankings. On the negative side of the ledger we find the following as extremely sub par or abject failures: Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, Ulysses S. Grant, Warren G. Harding, and Richard M. Nixon. Presidential succession- Although the office of Vice President never represented a challenge its importance cannot be understated. The vice presidency is a heartbeat away from the president. According to the Constitution the Vice President is to succeed the President. The first time it needed to be done John Tyler accomplished it when he replaced the deceased William Henry Harrison. According to the Constitution Congress decides order of presidential secession. In 1947 Congress enacted legislation setting the line of secession after the Vice President. This established order places the Speaker of the House third, followed by the President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the Cabinet members beginning with the Secretary of State and continuing in the chronological order of the creation of the position. The
Twentieth Fifth Amendment, ratified in 1967, allows for a smooth transition in the secession process. For example it provides a method to keep the Vice Presidency occupied. This office will never lie vacant again. This lessens the need to use the 1947 secession law. The Vice Presidency- In truth the Vice Presidency was an afterthought. During the Constitutional Convention the office came into existence merely to make the Electoral College work. It became the consolation prize in the formal race for the Presidency. The constitutional duties of the office are slender to say the least. The Vice President is the President of the Senate, and votes there only to break a tie. Of course he/she remains a heartbeat away from the President. On nine occasions the Vice President has succeeded the President. The role of the Vice President depends upon the wishes of the President. Most of the time his/her duties are minor. One half-hearted description depicts the Vice President as traveling the world going to funerals of former presidents of the third world. Of the more important jobs he/she performs include an occasional advisor to the president, a fact finder for the president, an agency head, a political partisan, and an ombudsman, resolving lower level complaints. The roles of the President- As the old yarn goes “the President wears many hats.” We will look at six of these hats: Chief Executive, Commander-in-Chief, Chief Diplomat, Chief Legislator, Head of State, and Head of Political Party. • Chief Executive- The Constitution gives the President the power to appointment officials such as federal judges, diplomats and Cabinet members. Some of these appointments known as patronage are products of political paybacks. These typically are associated with ambassadors. With the passage of the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 Presidents are required to submit a budget for the forthcoming fiscal year. Although Congress has huge discretionary powers in this area, the President’s budget set his/her priorities. • Commander-in-Chief- The President, as a civilian, is the head of the armed forces. This provides a singular head over all the uniform services. This role produces the classic clash between the President and Congress. While the president has his/her authority the Congress must declare war. Nevertheless, most of the military actions taken by the President did not request a declaration of war. • Chief Diplomat- The President negotiates treaties with other nations, but the approval of this action depends on a two-thirds vote of the Senate. This too has sparked controversy. Presidents often make agreements with other heads of state. The Supreme Court ruled that it is an acceptable way of performing diplomacy. This expedient alternative to treaty making lasts only through the administration initiating it. Congress, through the Case Act, mandates that the President present the information about such an agreement to them within 60 days. The President, on behalf of the country, extends diplomatic relations to nations. Inherent powers of the US are enhanced by this function. • Chief Legislator- If we recall the legislative process the executive branch draws up the largest percentage of bills. In this way the staff of the
•
•
President influences the making of the laws of the country. Congressional legislation authorizes Presidents to execute legislative intention. This done by the issuing of executive orders. In a less direct way the President motivates the legislative approach by delivering his/her state of the union address. In this constitutionally mandated notice the President acknowledges his/her programs to Congress. The Constitution requires that an annual message go to Congress. However, since the time Woodrow Wilson the President has delivered the address in person. The President is required to send a budget message to Congress. He/she sends this to Congress about one week after the State of Union, sometime in early February. Finally the presidential power takes on legislative qualities when he/she engages in the signing or vetoing of legislation. Head of State- This is largely a ceremonial role. This position in many other nations as a separate office. In the United Kingdom this is the role of the monarchy. In Germany the President of the Republic fulfills this function. While a nominal position the President represents the nation, including its spirit, laws and people. This includes the initial greeting of governmental dignitaries from other nations. As well as the purely celebrative role of lighting the White House Christmas tree, or organizing the annual Easter Egg hunt. Head of political party- This President by virtue of his/her august position gains control of the political party which elected him/her. The way in which major parties are structured limit the authority of a hierarchy. It falls to the President to move forward and capture that authority. Not all Presidents ascend to this role with the equal desire to serve in this capacity. Often the success or failure in this role depends upon the degree to which the President identifies with his/her political party. Certain Presidents such as Franklin Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan strongly identified with their political parties, others such as Dwight Eisenhower, who it is said took non partisanship to an art form, and Jimmy Carter, who often made policy without consulting the leadership of his party, were marginal in this role.
The major offices of the executive- After World War II the needs of the country changed and the executive branch continued to grow and become more organizationally complex. We will review some of these changes in the executive, as well as define the role of the Cabinet. In this case we must take into account the changing needs of the modern presidency, and the growing importance of the office.
The Executive Office of the Presidency- Within this office we find the primary advisor policy makers of the Executive branch of government. These include the White House Office, office of the Management and the Budget, the Council of Economic Advisor and the National Security Council.
• •
•
•
White House Office- Many of the prominent presidential advisors and policy makers belong to this office. This includes the White House Chief of Staff, White House Counsel, speechwriters and press secretary. Office of Management and the Budget (OMB) - The lengthy process of drawing up a fiscal year budget covers a year and a half period. Those who are involved in this detailed process work in the OMB. They prepare the budget and work to have it enacted. Council of Economic Advisors-The Council of Economic Advisors works with the OMB. However, it remains a separate institution. Its influence depends on the President to whom it serves. Ronald Reagan paid it no heed while Bill Clinton saw it as a beneficial institution. When called upon the council helps analyze economic data and forecast economic growth, decline and stability. National Security Council (NSC) - A creation of the 1947 legislative act which altered the foreign policy and defense establishment, features a membership which includes the true security establishment. Those on the NSC include the President, Vice President, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Director, and the Chairman of the Joint Chief of Staff. This intriguing polyglot advises the President on matters of security, and offers, as best as possible a coordinated policy concerning defense and diplomatic polices.
The Cabinet- Although not specifically stated in the Constitution the Cabinet came into existence by the request of George Washington. Since the time of the first president these secretaries of major departments of government have grown substantially in quantity. The initial cabinet positions included Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Attorney General, and Secretary of War. In Washington’s time this gentlemen offered advice to the President as well as administrating their departments. From the beginning the President appointed Cabinet members and the Senate confirmed them. Through the years the size of the Cabinet has grown, but their advisor role has diminished. Today they are the head of their department, and meet as a united body with the President. They still lead advice to the President, especially concerning policy effecting their department. The initial four offices remained the entirety of the Cabinet until the middle part of the Nineteenth Century. The Cabinet grew to include the Department of the Interior and Agriculture. Later other cabinet position were included and later restructured, such as the Department of Commerce and Labor, which divided into separate departments. Another realignment occurred when the Department of Health, Education and Welfare became the Departments of Health and Human Services and the Department of Education.
QUESTIONS What are the common social characteristics of the President? Which Presidents are considered the greatest?
What are the various roles of the Vice President? List three of the roles of the President. What is the composition of Executive Office of the President? Explain how the Cabinet has evolved and changed over time?
