Curriculum Reform

Curriculum Reform, Challenges, and Coping Strategies In the Ethiopian Educational System Introduction Ethiopia is a nation of more than 70 million people characterized by diverse ethnic, linguistic and religious groups. The agrarian subsistence economy falls short of food selfsufficiency and this remains a major problem for the country. Following decades of monarchical rule and a seventeen-year military regime, since the early 1990s Ethiopia has entered into the process of transformation towards a more civil society. This transformational process has led to numerous socioeconomic and political policy reforms. Central to reforms in the education sector are changes in the school curriculum, the decentralization of education, the use of regional languages for instruction (as opposed to the former use of the national language, Amharic), emphasis upon democratic values, and multiple perspectives in addressing diversity issues in education. These changes constitute a significant turning point in the history of education of this country. Recent reforms in education began with the Ministry of Education (M.O.E) document, Education and Training Policy (M.O.E,. 1994). This document begins by describing major problems of the educational system. These include: problems of relevance, quality, accessibility, equity, mode of delivery, inadequate facilities, insufficiently trained teachers, and shortages of books and other teaching materials. In response to these challenges, this document recommends changes in the school curriculum, language of instruction, teacher education programs and the examination system. These reforms were deemed 1 necessary strategies for making education more responsive to educational reform objectives which included: greater emphasis upon problem solving at all levels, increasing the numbers of

teachers needed for greatly increasing demands, wiser use of resources, increasing democratic culture, more efficient dissemination of science and technology, and making education more responsive to societal needs. The reform policy priorities requires a change in the school curriculum, improvement in the professional development of teachers, the use of regional languages for primary education, and specialized training of kindergarten and primary education teachers. The policy further proposes conducting a national examination at grade eight in order to certify the completion of primary education. In an effort to facilitate the reform recommendations, major changes have been underway in recent years. First, decentralized curricula guidelines are now in place for primary education across all regions. This contrasts greatly with the former system, which required a uniform curriculum practiced nationwide. Moreover, Regional Education Bureaus now use curricular materials more responsive to their diverse cultures. For example, rather than the former requirement that Amharic be used as the medium of instruction throughout the country, regional (vernacular) languages of the regions (e.g. Tigrinya, Oromipha, Harari) are being used instead. In addition, former one-year Teacher Training Institutions (TTIs) are now being transformed into two-year Community Colleges for the education and training of teachers for the second cycle of primary education (Grades 5-8). Further, the national examination for Grade 8 that was formerly administered only in the national Amharic language is now being 2 administered in the regional languages. With these ongoing reforms, the first group of schoolchildren experiencing the new curricula completed secondary education (Grade12) in the 2002/03 academic year. In the course of implementing the new policy, however, some challenges appear to be emerging regarding the compatibility of the decentralized curricula, use of regional languages, teacher

education, and the administration of the national examination. The problems appear to be particularly acute at the second cycle of primary education (Grades 5-8). A change in curriculum should take into account the larger sociocultural context but, should also not neglect the structural contexts of the educational system (Cornbleth, 1990). During the process of reform, these sub cultures of educational systems become either compatible or antagonistic. Compatibility among reforms prevails when a change in curriculum is followed by corresponding reforms in other relevant sectors of an educational system (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992). If antagonism prevails among the recent reforms in the educational system of Ethiopia, the realization of curriculum change and the objectives of education outlined in the reform policy will be challenged. The synchronicity among the reform efforts, therefore, deserves critical inquiry since change initiatives, contrary to the aspired goals, may turn out to be sources of constraints on teaching and on students’ opportunity for learning (Jacklam, 1996). Cornbleth (2001) raises a critical question regarding what factors get in the way of teaching for meaningful learning and critical thinking that incorporates diverse perspectives and students in terms of constraints/restraints. By extending 3 her conception of constraints/restraints, the present study investigates the question of whether incompatibilities prevail among the reform efforts that may get in the way of teaching for meaningful learning in the Ethiopian educational system. To achieve this objective, we examined disharmony among the reform efforts and subsequent challenges in order to forward suggestions about the coping strategies. The present investigation is based on accounts of personal experiences, field notes, and observations as a teacher educator, textbook writer and member of curriculum council; and analysis of policy documents and research reports. In order to conceptualize the areas of incompatibilities among the reform efforts in the

Ethiopian educational system, categories of interrelated components were used as the framework of analysis. Accordingly, components of the reform are grouped into two categories-- (1) language-related components and (2) teacher-curriculum-related components. Language-related components include the language used in schools, for the education of teachers, and for the administration of the national examination at the end of primary education. The teacher-curriculum-related components, on the other hand, involve the demands of the school curriculum, the capacity of schoolteachers, and the practices of teacher education programs. The categorization and coding of the prevailing reform efforts and the emerging areas of challenges in the Ethiopian educational system are vital to better understanding the problem and for the identification of possible coping strategies for more effective teaching and meaningful learning opportunities for students within the contexts of the reform efforts. 4 Incompatibilities Languages of Instruction and Teacher Education At the primary level (Grades 1-8) regional languages are currently used as the medium of instruction. Primary education is divided into two cycles. The first cycle ranges from Grades 1-4, while the second cycle extends from Grade 5-8. According to the Education Sector Development Program Action plan (1999, p.8), those who teach at the second cycle should be trained in two-year teacher education colleges. In light of this requirement, TeacherTraining Institutes (TTIs) that used to provide a one-year certificate program have been changed to two-year colleges for the education of second cycle primary teachers. This development has given rise to the claim by the colleges, as well as the trainees, of being part of the higher education system of the country. Accordingly, TTI’s now enroll only candidates who have successfully completed secondary education, require practice teaching and curricula and programs that are employed by other two-year colleges. Further, these colleges use English language as

the medium of instruction. Graduates of the colleges who have been educated in English, however, teach in primary schools in the vernacular languages of the various regions of the country. This incompatibility between languages of instruction and language in which graduates will actually teach is becoming a major issue. This issue of diverse languages of instruction was debated during the Ninth Annual Education Conference organized by the Ministry of Education (August, 1999). At this event, a number of Regional Education Bureau officials expressed concern that 5 graduates of Teacher Training Colleges (TTC’S) are less capable of teaching in the vernaculars. In particular, representatives from the Oromya Education Bureau (one of largest educational regions) noted that teachers are unable to effectively teach the new national curriculum since teaches are trained in English, but must implement the curriculum in Afan Oromo. Because of this issue, several conference participants demanded that native languages should also be used in teacher education programs. This demand, however, was controversial since it violates the national language policy of using English at the higher education level. The students in these programs are also reluctant to be educated trained in regional languages since this is perceived to be less acceptable in terms of both academic and social values. The English language has long been associated with higher-level learning in the country’s educational system. Thus, the use of vernaculars at the college level would face some form of resistance. Language of Instruction and National Examination According to the 1994 Education Policy, national examinations are to be administered at Grades 8 and 10. The national examination administered at Grade 8 recently became controversial in relation to language of instruction. Grade 8 marks the end of primary education where regional languages are used as the mode of instruction. In addition to the variations in the

languages of instruction among regions, there are also disparities in the curricular materials used. This disparity includes content coverage, areas of emphasis, and availability of resources. Disparities are found in the way the texts are written, the availability of 6 resources, and the patterns of implementation among regions. The employment of different languages is also posing a challenge in the preparation and administration of a single national examination in the country. The question is which language to use for the preparation of the examination? As different languages are used for the education at the elementary level, the use of one language for the preparation and administration of the national examination presents major concerns. The preparation of separate region-based examinations using different languages is perceived to be challenging in terms of maintaining nationwide standards. Lack of capacity and experience on the part of the Regional Education Bureaus is yet another language-related concern. The Regional Bureaus are recent establishments; thus, the availability of experts in the management of the development, administration, scoring and reporting of the national examination is another challenge posed in the consideration of the option of introducing region-based national examinations. The issue of maintaining a standard for all students who have completed Grade 8, on one hand, and the need to address regional disparities, on the other, have been the major theme of the National Conference on National Examination organized by the Ministry of Education in February, 2000. Participants at this Conference included Regional Education Bureaus, Higher Education Institutions, and different departments of the Ministry of Education-- including the National Organization for National Examinations. Following the review of the technical papers of the conference and debates, a remedial solution was forwarded. The resolution proposed that a general framework for the examination be prepared at

7 the national level and then the Regional Bureaus prepare their respective national examinations from this framework in the languages used for education in the regions. Since this recommendation appears responsive to the current decentralization of education in Ethiopia, it has been well-received. Other proposals at this conference, however, debated the position that there was a need to change the grade level at which vernaculars are replaced by English. According to this argument, the use of vernaculars should be limited to Grade 6. Subsequently, English should be used as the medium of instruction beginning at Grade 7 throughout the nation. This alternative offers two major advantages. First, the use of English beginning at grade seven would enable children to learn English earlier. This practice, it was argued, would benefit secondary school children who aspire to higher education. Secondly, this alternative would solve the problem of disparities and standards at the Grade 8 national examination. Apart from these two advantages, it was noted, limiting vernaculars within the first six years of primary education would not affect the education of children other than facilitating early transition from the vernacular to English. With this option, a national examination could be prepared and offered at Grade 8 in the English language. However, this alternative of limiting vernaculars at Grade 6 was left to the option of a change in the policy of language of instruction. That is, the education policy of the country requires the use of vernaculars at primary level up to Grade 8.Thus, limiting the use of vernaculars at Grade 6 calls for a change in the policy. 8 Curriculum Reform and Teacher Education The Education Policy of 1994 requires new strategies for teaching and learning. This policy encourages problem solving, student-centered, activity-oriented, and life-related approaches to instruction. According to Tekeste (1996), these are among the new inputs and strengths of the policy. These directions have also

influenced the writing of textbooks, which must be responsive to these changes. A central issue here, however, is how these new strategies will be introduced and who will support changes in these directions. Primary teachers today have not been prepared to use these recommended methodologies. Both practicing teachers and those who educate them have been schooled in approaches to instruction in which the teacher transmits information and learners memorize that which is taught. If recommended changes are to come about, then changes must be made in both teacher trainer facilities and through inservice training in the schools. Those who are in the teacher education programs appear to be less aware of what is happening in regard to the curriculum reforms. A study (USAID, 2000) noted that while policy makers have changed the curriculum for both the first and second cycle of primary education, the curriculum for the teacher training institutions and colleges have not changed in support of those changes. Problems with a lack of change are equally present in the secondary teacher education preparation programs. In this regard, the Faculty of Education at universities have barely introduced orientations reflective of changing policy requirements. Thus, classroom teachers are being expected to teach in a manner for which they have 9 not been prepared. The challenge, according to Little (1994), is that when policy reforms substantially depart from the teachers’ prior experience, beliefs, and practice, and when the policy proposes a learning environment for students with which teachers themselves are less experienced, tensions arise that impede teachers’ effectiveness and students’ opportunities to learn. The new curriculum also requires the need to address the issues of gender and other aspects of diversity in education. Yet, many barriers must be overcome to advance increased sensitivities to such areas. In teacher training programs, for example, diversity topics are very rare in either textbooks or course syllabi.

A survey of graduating classes of the teacher education program of the Addis Ababa University, for example, revealed low levels of awareness regarding gender issues in education (Belete, 2000). This is yet another gap between proposed curricular reforms and teacher education practices. In order to assist in the reform process, the Ministry of Education has recently begun organizing a series of workshops to orient key teacher/leaders at both the national and regional levels to reform mandates. Specifically, these workshops are designed to familiarize participants with the new curriculum in terms of both pedagogy and subject matter concerns. Participants are expected to share their knowledge with schoolteachers in their respective localities and schools. While this approach is at least a beginning, its impact is dwarfed by the potential changes that could be made through more responsive teacher education programs. To that end, the teacher education programs should introduce reforms 10 in their programs and philosophical orientations in line with the expectations of the new education policy and the curriculum that is being introduced into schools. The Curriculum Reform and Capacity of Teachers A major challenge at the middle school level (Grades 7-8) is that teachers at that level are less qualified and, in some cases, unable to teach the new curriculum for the given level. Teaching at the middle school level requires a minimum of two years of college, Yet, the majority of those who are teaching middle school children have only one -year of college study involving general aspects of the former curriculum of primary education. Moreover, new curriculum requires specialized knowledge of school subjects. Thus, since much of the content of grades nine and ten in the former curriculum has been shifted down to grade seven and eight in the new curriculum, teachers are often without adequate subject knowledge. This problem of inadequately prepared middle school teachers is commonly expressed by both teachers and parents of middle school children.

To assist teachers in upgrading their skills to meet the middle school demands of the new curriculum, distance education and inservice programs are now being introduced (ESDP, Action Plan, 1999). Through these inservice approaches, thousands of teachers are expected to receive upgraded training. The summer programs of universities and colleges constitute the most significant part of this upgrading scheme. By and large, the Teacher Education System Overhaul program that has been launched by the Ministry of Education recently is believed to have made a considerable contribution to addressing the compatibility issue among the demands of the new curriculum, increasing the numbers of school 11 teachers, and is changing practices of teacher education programs. This program involves revisiting teacher education programs in the colleges and universities with regard to reforming their curricular and organizational set up. In a related development, the Ministry of Education is aggressively expanding the higher education system in the country; and one of the most emphasized programs of the expansion is teacher education. Other than the newly founded institutions, teacher education department and faculties are being introduced into many of the colleges and universities. Summary and Recommendations From the foregoing presentation of the reform efforts that are taking place in the Ethiopian educational system and the emerging challenges, one can observe some degree of incompatibility among the reform efforts. Since reform efforts are so expansive, it is no wonder that incongruities are likely to occur. In tune with the political transformation in the country, reforms in education are characterized by a shift from a centralized tradition towards decentralization and a multicultural system of education. As a result of such massive educational changes, the reforms introduced in some of the components of the educational system result in incongruities. As part of the ongoing process of reform, efforts should be directed at identifying the areas of incompatibility and

relevant coping strategies for the successful implementation of the reforms as an integral part of nation building and development endeavors. Further, a holistic approach in conceptualizing the incompatibilities among the components that are interrelated would help identify the problem areas and the relevant coping strategies. 12

Language-Related Components The Language Related Components refer to the language of education, the language of the education of teachers, and the language for the preparation and administration of the national examination for primary education. These three components of primary education are interdependent and should be studied in relation to one another. This is important because, a change in one of these three would affect the other two. Ecological relation explains the relations among the three whereby all variables should function and synchronize smoothly and harmoniously. Thus, the efforts made to resolve the incompatibilities that are emerging in the new educational reform in Ethiopia with regard to the language of education, the language of education of teachers, and that of the national examination for the primary education should take into consideration the implications of the issues of language in both political and pedagogical terms. The resolution of the prevailing incongruity among these components of the reform can be sought in at least two possible options. Option I One alternative to solve the problem is based on the recommendations of the 1994 Training and Education Policy of Ethiopia. According to the policy, primary education is offered in the nationality languages. Also, the policy stipulates that the education of teachers for kindergarten and primary education should take place in regional languages. This policy, however, does not specify the language for the preparation and administration of

the national examination. Nevertheless, it would be logical to infer from the policy statements that if 13 primary education is offered in vernaculars, and teachers for the level are supposed to be trained in those vernaculars, then the examination should also be conducted in the same nationality languages. This recommendation, however, requires a number of further measures in the areas of teacher education, administration of the national examination, and capacity building for the Regional Education Bureaus. The Teacher Training Colleges should introduce the use of vernaculars as the language of training and education of teachers for primary education. This can be accomplished with the use of the English language. Accordingly, the national examination at the end of the primary education needs to be prepared and administered in the nationality languages that are used as the medium of instruction for primary education, and for the training of teachers for the given level. This measure calls for regionalizing of the national examination. Also, this demands the need for capacity building of the Regional Education Bureaus in the knowledge and skills of the development, administration, and reporting of region-based national examinations. Furthermore, if this option works out and becomes acceptable, there is a need for a centrally developed nation wide guide that serves as a form of standard for all regions. The standard may contain minimum requirements of the primary education curriculum that should be essentially included in the region-based national examinations. This option would accommodate disparities and diversities among regions, and meet the recommendations of the educational policy of the country. 14 Option II A second option recommends the use of English language nationwide as the medium of instruction at the middle school level of grades seven and eight. Thus, the use of nationality language as

the medium of instruction would be limited up to Grade 6. This measure would need to be accompanied by the use of the English language for the education of teachers for middle level primary education. With this option, the language for the preparation and administration of the national examination would be in English, and the examination would be developed and administered at the Federal level. However, as this option deviates from the recommendation of the policy, it requires a change in the policy of the language of education at the middle school level. Teacher-Curriculum Issues The second category of analysis of the educational reform efforts in Ethiopia includes demands of the curriculum, the educational background of the school teachers, and teacher education concerns. Congruity among these three variables plays a crucial role in the successful implementation of the new educational policy of the country. That is, the requirements of the new curriculum should serve as the framework in for revising the teacher education programs that, in turn, should be the basis for the subject matter and pedagogical upgrading and reorientation programs for the teaching force. Subject matter and pedagogical domains for the competence of the teaching force need to be fulfilled by the available institutions of teacher education in the country. Thus, the role of teacher 15 education programs in the effective implementation of the curriculum should be utilized in upgrading the existing teaching force that is less qualified than expected by the new curriculum. The teacher education programs, therefore, should look inwards and examine their practices and introduce reforms in their programs in light of the new curricular requirements. In this regard, teaching strategies that are based on problem solving, and that are life related, activity oriented and multicultural should be made a part of the teacher education programs of the colleges and universities of the country. Conclusion

Critical examination of the recent reform efforts in the various components of the Ethiopian education system reveals incompatibility, particularly among the reforms in the areas of the school curriculum, the teacher education program, the national examination, and the language of instruction. The prevailing lack of synchronicity among the reform efforts can be conceptualized in terms of two interrelated issues-- Language-Related Issues and Teacher-Curriculum issues. Thus, measures taken regarding one of the issues is are likely to affect the other. Therefore, any solution to the emerging problems of incompatibility among the elements of the system requires a holistic approach. Measures taken to synchronize the reform efforts in the decentralization of curriculum, language of instruction in schools, language of teacher education, requirements of the new curriculum, capacity of school teachers, national examination, and practices of teacher education institutions should minimize, if 16 not avoid, the constraints of the reform efforts on teaching for meaningful learning. Also, this would pave the way towards maximizing the return on education for the individual as well as for societal needs in the country. References Belete Kebede. (2000). The attitude of teacher trainees toward gender issues in education: The case of Addis Ababa University. A Research Report for the 10th OSSREA Gender Issue Research Competition (unpublished). Addis Ababa, July. Cornbleth, C. (1990). Curriculum in context. London: Falmer. Cornbleth, C. (2001). Climates of constraint/restraint of teachers and teaching. In W.B. Stanley (ed.). Social Studies: Research, Problems, and Prospects. Greenwich, CA: IAP. Jacklam, Y.L. (1996). Adapting to external constraints: Classroom teachers’ strategies. McGill Journal of Education, 31, Spring, 179 – 193.

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