Criminology.docx

Imagine a world where criminals run freely. Detectives and police officers collect evidence much the same way as they do today, but there is one main difference. Science is not used. Due to the lack of scientific analysis, there would not be a lot of useful evidence. Without the use of science, criminals could not be convicted of their crimes, ranging from common theft to a homicidal rampage, unless there was an eyewitness present at the crime scene when the crime occurred. Murderers would continue killing, thieves would continue stealing, and drug traffickers would continue dealing. Fortunately, in today's world, science is used in solving crimes. Clues a criminal leaves behind can be traced to themselves through scientific evidence. This field of science dealing with criminal investigation is known as forensic science, which roughly means the application of science to law. Forensic science can be used to determine many things from the evidence when it is collected properly without any contamination. The people that need to learn the methods of collecting the evidence for forensic science analysis are those from law enforcement agencies that come into contact with the crime scenes frequently.

Unfortunately, nine times out of ten, this person is an officer from a police department, which is lacking in evidence collection training. In other words, scientific concepts and principles are used to convict criminals of their crimes. Due to the great importance of forensic science in the conviction of criminals, the basic ideas and concepts need to be taught to officers of local police departments so that evidence can be collected without contamination in order to keep criminals, such as the Manson “family” and O. J. Simpson, from continuing to commit crimes that linger on forever in

the minds of the victim’s families and the nation's psyche. The evidence collected in the Manson murders known as the "Tate" murders and that from the O. J. Simpson case was in many ways done improperly. The improper collection and the use of various unsterilized items contaminated the evidence, making it worthless to the two individual cases. Police departments need to know how to handle evidence to make sure these mistakes do not happen again.

Throughout history, evidence has been used to convict criminals of the crimes that they have committed. Today’s society has improved upon the methods of the past to bring about more precise and accurate techniques. These techniques are more commonly known as the field of forensic science. Richard Saferstein writes a more specific definition than what was previously given in his book Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, which says that forensic science is the “application of science to those criminal and civil laws that are enforced by the police agencies in a criminal justice system (Saferstein 1).” The origin of this type of science cannot be accurately pinpointed. According to H. J. Walls' article “Whither Forensic Science?” it started as a hobby of a few scientists who liked to become mixed up in the proceedings of the police and “enjoyed the kind of problems this association brought them (Walls 32).” We do not know how forensic science originated and came together or how it came to be connected to the police investigations and court rulings. According to Cowan in his article “Decision Theory in Law, Science, and Technology” “The aim of science, traditionally put, is to search out the ways in which truth may become known. Law aims at the just resolution of human conflict. Truth and justice, we might venture to say, having different aims,

use different methods to achieve them. Unfortunately, this convenient account of law and science is itself neither true nor just. For law must know what the truth is within the context of the legal situation: and science finds itself ever engaged in resolving the conflicting claims of theorists putting forward their own competing brands of truth (Cowan 5).” This quote roughly means that the law needs to find the truth to resolve “human conflict” and one method of doing so is to use the field of science. The only problem with this method is that science is struggling to find the correct truth. Different scientists supply various ways of what is known as the truth, but sometimes these truths differ. An example of the differing opinions is shown in what scientists believe caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Several scientists believe in the asteroid impact theory, in which giant asteroid fell to the earth. This caused a cloud of dust to erupt into the earth’s atmosphere, blocking all sunlight. Those that did not die in the initial impact died of starvation. Other beliefs include a massive plague that infected all of the dinosaurs and severe global warming due to the gases from the volcanoes (ETE Team 2001). The three beliefs given about the dinosaurs are just examples of the differing opinions among scientists.

An excellent example of the need for the proper collection of evidence for forensic science analysis in criminal investigations would be the Manson “family” "Tate" murders of the late 1960s. These crimes took place near the city of Los Angelos in California. Two people, Abigail Folger and Voytek Frykowski, were found lying on the rear grounds of the Tate property in the grass. Folger had been stabbed a total of twenty-eight times and Frykowski was shot twice, stabbed fifty-one times, and brutally hit over the head thirteen times. Steven Parent was also found on the

outside premises of the estate. He was shot four times and stabbed once while in his car. The other two victims of the “Tate” murders, Sharon Tate Polanski and Jay Sebring, were found in the inner part of the house tied together by a single rope surrounding both their necks that was knotted to a ceiling rafter. Neither of these two unfortunate people died from the hanging. Polanski, who was at the time eight months pregnant, took sixteen stab wounds to both her back and her chest. Sebring, stabbed seven times and shot once, died from exsanguinations, which means bleeding to death. The Los Angeles police department, LAPD, worked on this set of murders (Bugliosi 1974). The department did not have sufficient training to collect the evidence found at the crime scenes. Due to this fact many mistakes were made.

The first mistake, made by the LAPD officers, occurred shortly after arrival at the Tate residence. The officers, in an attempt to cover the bodies of the dead, put blue sheets found in a linen closet over the bodies (Bugliosi 1974). This was not wise because small fibers from the sheets covered the victim’s bodies, and these fibers mixed in with the other fibers that were already on the bodies. These could have easily been from the garments that the murderer or murderers had worn. They could have been observed through a microscope for the diameter, length, surface texture, and many other characteristics (Turner 1949). These results would then be compared to the known fibers that have been entered into a database for easy reference. After the fibers already on the body had been contaminated by the sheet fibers, they were deemed practically useless. The other mistake that was made with these blue sheets involved the

amount of time that they were on the bodies. A week after the LAPD arrived, the blue sheet that was on the body of Abigail Folger was still there (Bugliosi 1974). The sheets were not a well thought out plan, but leaving the bodies out in the open for that amount of time was far worse. The bodies needed to be taken to a medical examiner immediately to have an autopsy completed to determine how long the individual had been dead and the cause of death (Larson 1999).

Fingerprints can be the key evidence to any investigation; however, in the Manson investigation they were a key problem. An LAPD officer took notice of a spot of blood on the button that opened the gate to the Tate estate while escorting a possible suspect up to the mansion. According to Vincent Bugliosi, in his book Helter Skelter, he reported that the officer "who was charged with securing and protecting the scene until investigating officers arrived, now pressed the button himself, successfully opening the gate but also creating a superimposure that obliterated any print that may have been there. (p 14)” Basically, what this means is that the officer saw the blood on the button and then either did not have enough common sense not to push the button or simply did not care whether he damaged a crucial piece of evidence. Another piece of evidence, the gun used in the crimes, was reported to have more fingerprints that belonged to officers than the fingerprints of the perpetrators. About two weeks after the murders at the Tate property were reported, a boy found the weapon and brought it to the attention of the authorities. E. Sanders in his book The Family commented, “The boy was careful not to touch the revolver to protect fingerprints. The police smudged it up and filed it away, the

chambers of the weapon containing seven spent shells and two live bullets. (p 355)” Apparently the young boy was more careful with the evidence than the slightly trained police officers. Perhaps he should have been the one collecting the evidence and not the professionals. Due to the mishandling of the gun the fingerprints that were on it could not be identified. Fortunately, a fingerprint for the front door of the house and another that was lifted from Polanski’s bedroom matched two of the suspects (Bardsley 2001). Using fingerprints to identify people has been in practice since around 1860. A very basic definition of a fingerprint is that it is a print of the design of the “friction skin ridges” on the “palm side” of a finger. There are three main patterns, or ridge characteristics, that can be used to identify each person: arches (5% of all fingertips), loops (60%), and whorls (35%) (Inbau 25). The placement of each of these qualities is different from person to person, no two are alike. -Manson Gun (Bardsley 2001)

OVERVIEW ON FORENSIC SCIENCES AND CRIMINOLOGY There is urgent and widespread need for the application of forensic science in criminal investigation.The present day picture ofcrime investigationand prosecution of criminals,is a sad story. A large percentage of the murder trials,ultimately,end in acquittal. It is estimated that the prosecution agency spends on an average over Rs.10,000.00 per trial. Thus,not only a dangerous criminal goes scotfree but huge amount of public money is also wasted.These frequent acquittals also embolden the criminals. Forensic Science in criminal investigations and trials is mainly concerned with materials and indirectly through materials with men,places and time. Among men,the investigating officer is the most important person.Infact ,it is he whose work determines the success or failure of the application of forensic science in the processing of a criminal case. If he fails to collect the relevant evidence,allows the exhibits to be contaminated or does not provide correct samples for comparison,the findings of a forensic scientistwill be useless. NATURE Forensic Science embraces all branches of science and applies them to the purpose of law. Originally all the techniques were borrowed from various scientific disciplines like chemistry , medicine ,surgerybiology,photography. But in the past few years it has developed its own branches which are more or less exclusivedomains of forensic science. More recently significant advances have been made in serology,voice analysis,odour analysis and in studies relating to nose prints and ear patterns. NEEDS The need for the application of science in criminal investigation has arisen from the following factors: Social Changes: The society is undergoing drastic social changes at a very rapid pace. India has changed from a colonial subject race to a democratic republic. Sizeable industrial complex has sprung up. The transport facilities have been revolutionized. There is a growing shift from a rural society to an urban one. These changes have made the old techniques of criminal investigation obsolete. In the British days the police was so much feared that once it had laid its hands upon an individual,he would ‘confess’ to any crime,he may not have even known.The fear is vanishing now. The use of ‘third degree’ techniques used in those days does not find favour with the new generation of police officers and judges. Hiding facilities: The quick means of transport and high density of population in cities have facilitated the commission of crimes. The criminal can hide himself in a corner of a city or move away to thousands of miles in a few hours. He,thus often escapes apprehension and prosecution. Technical knowledge: The technical knowledge of an average man has increased tremendously in recent years. The crime techniques are getting refined. The investigating officer, therefore, needs modern methods to combat the modern criminal. Wide field: The field of activities of the criminal is widening at a terrific rate. Formely,the criminals were usually local,now we find that national or international criminal is a common phenomenon. Smuggling,drug trafficking ,financial frauds and forgeries offer fertile and ever expanding fields. Better Evidence: The physical evidence evaluated by an expert is objective. If a fingerprint is found at the scene of crime, it can belong to only one person. If this person happens to be be the suspect,he must account for its presence at the scene. Likewise,if abullet is recovered from a dead body,it can be attributed to only one firearm. If this firearm happens to be that of the accused , he must account account for its involvement in the crime. Such evidence is always verifiable.

Functions Forensic science provides answer to the following three questions: 1. Has a crime been committed? Consider the case of recovery of a dead body. Death could be natural accidental or homicidal. Forensic Science by ascertaining the nature of death, establishes the existence or absence of corpus delicti. 2. How and when was the crime committed? The examination of the ‘corpus delicti’ reveals the way of the crime was committed and possibly the time when it was committed. 3. Who committed the crime? Forensic science establishes the identity of the culprit through personal clues like fingerprints,footprints,blood drops or hair. It links the criminal with the crime through objects left by him at the scene with the victim or carried from the scene and the victim. On the other hand, if the clues recovered do not link the accused with the victim or the scene of occurrence, the innocence of the accused is established. Forensic science,thus,helps the innocent. Development The application of Forensic Science in the investigation of crime can be effective only if the investigating officer knows: 1. The nature of physical evidence to be collected. 2. Where it is found. 3. How it is collected and packed. 4. What standard samples for comparison purposes are necessary. 5. How much sample is required. 6. How the sampling is done. 7. How the evidence will link the crime with the criminal and to what extend his labours will be rewarded by the laboratory results. This is possible if the investigating officer is given a thorough grounding in the above aspects. He needs both theoretical and practical training. All police training institutions have courses in scientific aids, but the syllabi and the teaching standards are far from satisfactory. Periodical attachment of investigating officers to the departmental forensic science laboratories can go a long way in inculcating the scientific spirit. Ignorance about the value of evidence sometimes causes a lot of disappointment to an investigating officer. For example, hair are recovered in quite a few cases. Evaluation of hair does not lead to positive identification of the source of hair. It is not possible at the present stage of development of the science. They would not be disappointed , if they know the limitations. Principles The laws and principles of all the natural sciences are the bases of forensic science. In addition,it has developed its own principles. Law of individuality- Every object, natural or man-made, has an individuality which is not duplicated in any other object. This principle, at first sight appears to be contrary to common beliefs and observations. The

grains of sand or common salt , seeds of plants or twins look exactly alike. Likewise, manmade objects: coins of the same denomination made in the same mint,currency notes printed with the same printing blocks one after the other (excluding serial number) and typewriters of the same make,model and batch appear to be indistinguishable. Yet the individuality is always there. It is due to small flaws in the materials, in the arrangement of the crystals , imperfect stamping or due to inclusions of some extraneous matter. The individuality has been verified in certain fields. The most extensive work has been carried out in finger prints. Millions of prints have been checked but no two fingerprints, even from two fingers of the same person have ever been found to be identical. The law of individuality is of fundamental importance in forensic science. Anything and everything involved in a crime, has an individuality. If the sane is established , it connects the crime and the criminal. Principle of exchange- ‘Contract exchanges traces’ is the principle of exchange. It was first enunciated by the French scientist, Edmond Locard. According to the principal, when a criminal or his instruments of crime come in contact with the victim or the objects surrounding him, they leave traces. Likewise, the criminal or his instruments pick up traces from the same contact. Thus, a mutual exchange of traces like takes place between the criminal, the victim and the objects involved in the crime If these traces are identified to the original source, viz., the criminal or his instrument (or vice versa), they establish the contact and pin the crime on to the criminal. The principal of exchange is aptly demonstrated in hit and run cases and in offences against person. The basic requirement of the principle is the correct answer to the question ‘ What are the places or objects with which the criminal or his tools actually came in contact?’ If the investigating officer is able to establish the points of contact , he is likely to reap a rich harvest of physical clues: 1. If a criminal enters the premises through a ventilator , he leaves his foot prints in dust on the sill. 2. If he breaks a window or a door, the jimmy leaves its marks on the wooden frame. 3. The burglar, who opens a safe by an explosive, leaves the area around and the clothes (including shoes ) covered with insulating material as well as some exploded and unexploded explosive materials. The criminal is likely to leave and carry minute traces only. It is seldom that he dares or neglects to leave or carry gross objects or traces. On a thorough search, the inconspicuous traces will always be found in all types of crimes. The minute traces connect the crime and the criminal as effectively as the gross objects or traces. Law of progressive change- ‘ Everything changes with the passage of time’. The rate of change varies tremendously with different objects. Its impact on forensic science is immense. 1. The criminal undergoes rapid changes. If he is not apprehended in time, he becomes unrecognizable except perhaps through his fingerprints, bone fractures or other characteristics of permanent( comparatively speaking ) nature which are not always available. 2. The scene of occurrence undergoes rapid changes. The weather, the vegetable growth, and the living beings (especially human-beings) make extensive changes in comparatively short periods. Longer the delay in examining the scene, greater will be the changes. After some time , the scene may become unrecognizable. 3. The objects involved in crime change gradually, the firearm barrels loosen , metal objects rust , the shoes suffer additional wear and tear and the tools acquire new surface patterns. In course of time the objects may loose all practical identity vis-à-vis a particular crime.

The principle, therefore, demands prompt action in all aspects of criminal investigation. Principle of comparison- Only the like can be compared is the principle of comparison. It emphasizes the necessity of providing like samples and specimens for comparison with the questioned items: 1. In a murder case, a bullet is recovered from the deceased. The expert opines that the bullet has been fired from a firearm firing high velocity projectiles like a service rifle. It is futile to send shotguns ,pistols or revolvers as the possible suspect firearm. 2. A bunch of hair is recovered from the hands of a deceased. The expert opines that the hair belong to a Negroid person. Hair from persons of white races for comparison will not be of any use. 3. The questioned writing is found to have been writing with a ball pen. To send fountain pen as a likely instrument of writing is futile. Once handwriting available on a photograph allegedly written on a wall was compared with the specimen written on a paper. It did not give worthwhile results. A second set of specimens was obtained by writing on the same wall, at the same height and with the same instrument and then photographed . It allowed comparison. (CH) Principle of analysis- The analysis can be no better than the sample analysed. Improper sampling and contamination render the best analysis useless. The principle emphasizes the necessity of correct sampling and correct packing for effective use of experts. 1. A criminal while running away from the scene if occurrence brushes against a painted surface. Some powdered particles of paint get deposited upon his clothes. The investigating officer scraps a few grams of paint from the same surface with a pen-knife and sends it as control sample. The result of the analysis shows that the two paints do not match. Why? 2. A small amount of dust is recovered from a small sticky patch of the shoe of a culprit. The investigating officer collects about two kilograms of soil from the scene , packs it in tin and sends it as a control sample. The results of comparison are inconclusive. Why? 3. In a rape case, the investigating officer collects the clothes of the victim. The clothe carry both blood and semen stains. The investigating officer dries the clothes and packs them together and sends them through a railway parcel. He wants to know if the clothes carry semen stains , and if so, to which blood group does the secretor belong? The expert establishes the existence of semen but fails to give its blood grouping; because he finds powdered blood sticking to semen stain. Facts do not lie- ‘Facts do not lie, men can and do’ , hence the importance of circumstantial evidence vis-à-vis oral evidence. The oral testimony depends upon the power of observation , assimilation and reproduction of the witness. It is modified by the power of observation, assimilation and reproduction of the witness. It is modified by auto suggestion , external influence, suggestions, descriptions and opinions of others and rationality. Oral evidence , therefore , is coloured whereas factual evidence is free from these infirmities. But ‘facts’ can also be created:

1. A person is killed in an accident firing. The relatives want to implicate their opponents. They procure an unlicensed firearm, fire a cartridge ,place at at the scene and plant the firaram on the opponent. The police recovers the shell and the firearm. The shell is married to the firearm. The police prosecutes the person. 2. A person is in the armed forces. He is seen carrying out duty upto 1 A.M. in the unit. He slips through the guarded premises, goes about a hundred miles, and commits a murder, returns to his unit, enters into the guarded premises secretly and is present on his duty at 7-30 A.M. By circumstantial evidence he proves his presence in the unit throughout the night. 3. A threatens B with death. The next day B is found murdered. B had no other enemies except A. Police suspects A as the murderer. He is not found anywhere. He is declared a proclaimed offender. Soon afer ‘A’ appears before a magistrate and says he had gone on a pilgrimage. But checking at the allegedly visited places, his visits to the places are not established. He is arrested and prosecuted. In defence , he produces the jail record. He was behind the bars at the relevant time. He escapes sentence. Law of probability- All identifications, definite or indefinite, are made , consciously or unconsciously,on the basis of probability. ‘ Probability’ is mostly misunderstood. If we say that according to probability a particular fingerprint has come from the given source, the defence counsels will make most of the word and plead that it is not a definite opinion. Consequently, it is not customary to talk of ‘probability’ or ‘probability figures’ in counts. Probability is the mathematical concept. It determines the chances of occurrence of a particular event in a particular way out of a number of ways in which the event can take place or fail to take place with equal facility. If P represents probability N1 the number of ways in which the event can successfully occur(with equal facility) and N2 the number of ways in which it can fail (with equal facility), the probability of success is given by the formula: P= N1/ N1+N2. We have neglected other factors (sex, age and dress) and even without these additional factors , the identity of the deceased is established beyond a ‘ reasonable doubt’. Tools and Techniques The tools and techniques of forensic science are oriented to meet the following exacting demands in an analysis : 1. Sensitivity 2. Specificity 3. Rapidity The instruments and techniques should be highly sensitive because the quantities of materials involved are extremely small, often in micro , sub micro or microscopic ranges. For example, a few milligrams of certain poisons are sufficient to kill a person. The quantity is distributed in whole body. Paints, soils , dusts , inks and body fluids are often met with in micro quantities. The number of cases requiring evaluation of clues is increasing everyday. The techniques and instruments should , therefore, be rapid. In classical examination of viscera and organs each item is subjected to lengthy process of extraction, purification, identification and estimation. The results are checked and cross checked for mistakes. Modern techniques may eliminate most of these steps.

The tools and techniques currently used in modern forensic science laboratories belong to both classical and modern categories.They are as follows:         

Measurements Microscopy Photography Invisible rays Chromatography Electrophoresis Spectrography Laser Techniques Mass Spectrometry X- Ray diffraction analysis.

FORENSIC SCIENCE AND CRIMINAL PROSECUTION I. Scene of Occurrence A scene of occurrence is the meeting place of the persons involved. The parties exchange traces with one another and with the scene, leave odds and ends and mark of tools, wearing apparels, means of transport , hands and feet. Thus the scene of occurrence provides a wealth of information which is useful to: 1. Establish corpus delicti 2. Provide link between the criminal , the victim and the scene of occurrence; and 3. Evaluate the pattern of events. The scene is of great importance in almost all crimes except perhaps in cases of forgery where the utility is limited. The examination of the scene needs planning , care and diligence. In many cases the success or failure of the investigation depends entirely upon the proper handling of the scene. The scene of occurrence changes rapidly and cannot be preserved forever. Some of the evidence gets lost soon after the occurrence, the other evidence disappears, gets contaminated or altered with further passage of time. The opportunity to examine the scene is available only once. If the same is not fully exploited the wealth of information is lost for ever. CASE LAWS: 1. Raghunandan v State. Of U.P., 1974 Cri. L. J. 453 (S.C) In the above case both the trial court as well as the High Court had brushed aside the objection that the blood recovered from the place of occurrence was not sent for chemical examination. The failure of the police to send the blood for chemical examination is a serious case of murder , such as the one before us., is to be depreciated . In such a case the place of occurrence is often disputed. 2. Marachalil Chandra Tukaram Talekar v State of Gujrat. 1980 Cri. L.J.5 (Guj) Identity of the scene: It was argued with great vehemence in the High Court as well as in the court of sessions that there was trial of blood from the front door of the house of the vakil into the corridor rooms marked H and H-1 in the plan and that supported the defence theory that the

deceased Kannan received the stab injuries not in or near the house in question but somewhere far away near the railway station. The High Court took the view that if Kannan had received the injuries somewhere outside the house it was impossible for him to have come into the room in view of the doctor’s evidence. It was concluded on the material placed on the record that there could be no room for doubt that Kannan received the injuries in the room itself and not outside, and that he was carried out of the room while life was still lingering and therefore there would be dripping of the blood from the body during the course of transit as the injuries were very serious and vital arteries had been cut. II. FINGERPRINTS The identification of criminals through fingerprints was the first important break-through in the scientific investigation of crime. As usual, the judiciary and the public took some time to believe in the utility of fingerprints as a scientific aid. The same is now recognized throughout the world. The importance of fingerprints in criminal investigation is immense, because they are: Unique Ridge pattern of each finger has an individuality. The patterns vary not only from one individual to another , but they are different in the same individual on each finger. Duplication of pattern has never been observed. Nor the same is expected. Permanent The fingerprints of an individual do not change throughout his life. In fact, the ridges appear before birth. They start appearing during third or fourth month of pregnancy. They remain even after the death of the individual ever till the epidermal skin is destroyed by fire, putrefaction or is eaten by insects or other creatures. In a murder case the body of the victim was partially burnt and buried. The same was discovered many days after the murder. The body was completely disfigured and could not be identified. The investigating officer got removed the remaining skin pieces from the tips of the fingers through a doctor. He sent them to fingerprint bureau alongwith the one authentic print of the deceased available on his will. The bureau confirmed the identity of the deceased. The digital skin pieces were recovered and sent to the finger print bureau. The fingerprints of the deceased tallied with the fingerprints of the convict , available in the records, The permanence of fingerprints permits identification of an individual even after many years, if his finger print record is available. Many criminals have been identified through this medium after years of absconding. Universal All individuals and hence all criminals carry this medium of identification. The finger digits and palmar surface of the hands carry the friction ridges. The fingers have more intricate patterns. They allow easier individualization and classification. A criminal uses his hands in the commission of crime. He leaves marks at the scene of occurrence or on the objects which come in contact in the commission of crime. There are fair chances of occurrence of fingerprints , therefore in all types of crime. Inimitable Successful forgery of fingerprints has not been reported so far. Near perfect forgeries have been attempted. It is possible that the advancement of science may bring the forgery still closer to perfection but complete success in the enterprise is extremely difficult ,if not impossible.

For all practical purposes it may be taken that it is not possible to forge a fingerprint. This is important because no person can deny his or her fingerprints. The identification through fingerprints is certain and infallible. Classifiable The scope for classification of fingerprints is large and yet the work is simple. Records of millions of persons can be classified and kept on nicrofilms. Computerisation of fingerprint record, and hence searches are becoming popular and is increasing the efficiency. A search can be made virtually in seconds with the help of these devices. CASE LAWS Sufficient Evidence 1. The question was raised before the sessions Judge as to whether a conviction can be based upon the unsupported testimony of a fingerprint expert. There is no rule of law on the point; it is merely a matter of caution whether a court will act on such unsupported evidence or not. The correct principle was defined by S.K. Ghose,J. in Hatendra Nath Sen v Emperor. “ I do not think that it can be laid down as a rule of law that it is unsafe to base a conviction on the uncorroborated testimony of a fingerprint expert. The true rule seems to me to be one of caution that is to say, the court must not take the expert’s opinion for granted , but it must examine his evidence in order to satisfy itself that there can be no mistake and the responsibility is all the greater when there is no other evidence to corroborate the expert” Uncorroborated Evidence In Bazari Hajam v King Emperor(AIR 1922 Pat.73 :23 Cr. L.J 638) the question arose whether it will be safe to act on the uncorroborated testimony of the fingerprints and declare the guilt of the accused. On this point Bucknill,J., observed thus: “ I think that apart from the fact that I should be rather sorry without any corroborative circumstances to convict a person of a serious crime solely and entirely upon similarity of thumb marks or finger prints, the very fact of the taking of a thumb-impression from an accused person for the purpose of possible manufacture of the evidence by which he could be incriminated is in itself sufficient to warrant one in setting aside the conviction upon the understanding and upon the assumption that such was not really a fair trial.” The above view was disapproved of by Schwabe, C.J. in Public Prosecutor v Kandasami Thevan (AIR 1927 Mad. 696 :27 Cr. L. J 1251) although the point did not directly arise in the case as there were thumb-impressions of the accused in evidence other than that taken by the judge in court for comparison with the thumb-impressions in the document alleged to have been forged. III. TRACK MARKS The culprit approaches, stays and then leaves the scene of occurrence. He leaves track marks on and around the place in the form of prints and impressions( collectively called ‘marks’) of feet, shoes, tyres, hoofs and the like. The evidence often connects the criminal with the crime conclusively. It should, therefore be properly understood ,collected, evaluated and presented in the courts. The track marks establish not only the presence of the culprit at the scene of crime but also

give the number of participants. The evidence is helpful in tracking down the criminals to their houses or hide-outs, especially in India where most of the people live in rural areas. The roads in the country side are not metalled. Besides, the criminal, ordinarily, follows untrodden routes ; fields ,garden and stream beds. He leaves track marks on routes used before and after the commission of the crime. The nature of the vehicle used in the commission of crime wether it is a cycle , scooter, car, bus, truck, tractor, rickshaw, bullock cart or a buggie can be ascertained. It is sometimes possible to identify the individual vehicle also.In some cases animals are involved in crimes sometimes. For example , a horse or a camel may be used for transport ; a cow , a buffalo or a bullock may be stolen or a dog or a tamed wild best , like a snake or a tiger may be used to destroy or kill a human-being or a domestic animal. The type of the animal or the beast can be found out from the track marks. Foot Wear marks include the marks of shoes , sandals , chappals , socks and the like. The footwear may be factory- made or hand made. CASE LAWS Rejecting the contention that the study of footprints is not a science in Din Muhammad v Emperor , Central Provinces Police Gazette dated 27th May , 1914 pp. 125-130, the court of the Judicial Commissioner at Nagpur (H.J. Stanyon and H.F. Hallifax, A.J. Cs ) as far back as in 1914 held: “The knowledge of footprints has similarly been systematized and pursued by trackers , mainly uncivilized and ignorant people an all other respects, all over the world . The matter is therefore undoubtedly a science and the opinion of a person specially skilled in it is a relevant fact, under Sec-45 of the Evidence Act “ In Re Paramban Manmmadhu, which is a bench decision of that court, delievered by Horwill, J (Supra) the learned judge held that opinion of a foot print expert is not admissible as evidence. In the case of Pritam Singh v State of Punjab (AIR 1956 S.C. 415) there is an observation to the effect that the science of identification by footprints is a rudimentary science and much reliance cannot be placed on the result of such identification. POISONS Poisons are frequently involved in homicidal accidental or suicidal deaths. They are sometimes used to destroy animals and plants. The detection of poisons and their identification is an important aspect of forensic science. The investigation of cases of poisoning is one of the most difficult tasks. The quantity of a poison required to kill a victim is extremely small in some cases. For example , the fatal dose of nicotine is about 50 milligrams. The investigation is further complicated by the variety of poisons available. The everincreasing number of synthetic drugs which are used as poisons is further adding to the complications. Some drugs are very close to one another in their chemical and physiological behaviours. Their identification requires the most fined analytical techniques. Body materials in which the poisons are found,is a complex mixture of organic , inorganic and biological substances. They interfere in the isolation , detection and estimation of the

poisons. In fact the most difficult task of a toxicologist is to isolate the poison in pure form. Once it is done, it is comparatively easier to identify and estimate the quantity. An analysis of some of the poisons which can prove detrimental is as follows : Name of the Poison Fatal Dose Fatal Period Aconite 1.0 to 2.0g of root 1 to 5 hours Alcohol(Absolute) 250 to 500 ml A few hours Arsenic 0.13 to 0.2g Half to 2 days Caustic alkali 14g Within 24 hours D.D.T 2g onwards A few hours to few days Mushrooms Uncertain One day to several days. Nicotine 0.06g A few minutes. Oxalic Acid 4 to 16g A few minutes to a few hours Quinine Uncertain A few minutes to several days Sulphuric Acid 4ml A few minutes to several weeks. Zinc phosphide 0.8g Within a day’ CASE LAWS 1. The essential ingredients in a case of poisoning are no longer in doubt. The matter is concluded by a series of Supreme Court decisions. In Anant Chintaman Lagu v State of Bombay (AIR. 1960 S.C. 500), their lordships pronounced that the prosecution establish three propositions in a case of poisoning: i) Death took place by poisoning ; ii) Accused had the poison in his possession; and iii) Accused had the opportunity to administer poison to the deceased. 2. In Emperor v Shetya Timma( AIR 1926 Bom. 518) ,the death was caused by Dhatura poisoning. After review of conflicting decisions on the point, their lordships held that where the accused administered Dhatura poison to five men in order to facilitate commission of robbery and in consequence thereof three men died , the accused must be presumed to have knowledge that their act was so dangerous that it was likely to set aside. The same view was taken in Emperor v Chattarpal( AIR 1930 Oudh 502) .

FORENSIC SCIENCE AND SEXUAL OFFENCES Serious common sexual offences are: • Rape • Incest • Unnatural offences. Some minor sexual offences are: 1. Exhibitionism 2. Sadism 3. Frottage 4. Voyeurism-‘Peeping Tom’

Certain sexual aberrations are: 1. Masochism 2. Transvertism 3. Fetishism In all the above cases Forensic Science play a major role in understanding the nature and gravity of the concerned crime. CONCLUSION The lack of understanding and critical appraisal of specialists in general, by non- specialists, is all- pervasive. The field of Forensic Science is no exception. Neither the police, nor the lawyer , nor even the judge appreciates fully the advances or the extensive potentialities of the science. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Science for Prosecution- by Grant, J.(London) 2. Criminal Interrogation- by Aubry, A.S.(Springfield) 3. Forensic Science in Criminal Investigation and Trials – by B.R. Sharma 4. Fingerprints: History, Law and Romance -by Wilton,G.,(London ) 5. An outline of Scientific Criminology by Morland,N., (Norwich ) 6. An introduction to Criminalistics by O’Hara, C.E., and J.W. Osterburg,(Springfield) 7. Principle and Digest of Law of Evidence Act by Monir,M.,(Allahabad) 8. Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology by Modi N.J(Bombay)

The application of science and technology to the detection and investigation of crime and administration of justice is not new to India. Although our ancestors did not know forensic science in its present form, scientific methods in one way or the other seem to have been followed in the investigation of crime. Its detailed reference is found in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra,’ which was written about 2300 years ago. Indians studied various patterns of the papillary lines, thousands of years ago. It is presumed that they knew about the persistency and individuality of fingerprints, which they used as signatures. Even Mr. KM Kata, a frequent contributor to ‘Nature’, stated that the Chinese records proved the use of fingerprints in an ancient kingdom of southern India. The Indians knew for long that the handprints, known as the Tarija’, were inimitable. The use of fingerprints as signatures by illiterate people in India, introduced centuries ago, was considered by some people as ceremonial only, till it was scientifically proved that identification from fingerprints was infallible.

:: Chemical examiner’s laboratories

During the nineteenth century, when the cases of death due to poisoning posed a problem to the law enforcement agencies, a need was felt for isolating, detecting and estimating various poisons absorbed in the human system. The first Chemical Examiner’s Laboratory was, therefore, set up for this purpose at the then Madras Presidency, under the Department of Health, during 1849. Later, similar laboratories were set up at Calcutta (1853), followed by one each at Agra (1864) and Bombay (1870). These laboratories were equipped to handle toxicological analysis of viscera, biological analysis of stains of blood, semen, etc. and chemical analysis of food, drugs, and various excisable materials to provide scientific support to the criminal justice delivery system within their limited means. These laboratories also provided analytical facilities to the neighbouring States and Union Territories.

:: Anthropometric bureau

While some progress was made in the identification of poisons, the identification of people, specifically criminals, was still being done in a rather haphazard manner. Policemen would try to memorize convict’s face so that they could recognize him if he got involved in another crime later. With the introduction of Photography, the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) maintained records of every known criminal including a detailed description of his appearance. With the invention of Bertillon’s anthropometric system in 1878, India, along with the other countries of the world, adapted Bertillon’s system of personnel identification and thus an Anthropometric Bureau, for maintaining anthropornetric records of criminals, was established in 1892 at Calcutta.

:: Finger print bureau

William Herschel, the Collector of the District of Hooghly (Bengal) found that markings on the fingertips of a person never changed during his lifetime. Herschel applied his knowledge and skill in devising a system of registration of finger or thumb impressions of native contractors to safeguard the interests of the Govermnent against the repudiation of contracts by them. Thereafter, he extended his registration procedure to prison regulations for identifying convicted criminals. In 1877, Herschel sought the consent of his superior officers in putting his ideas into practice, but did not succeed. In

1891, Edward Richard Henry’s appointment, the Inspector General of Police in Bengal, introduced the thumb impressions in the record slips, containing anthropometric data, to avoid wrong identification. Long before 1897, he introduced maintenance of duplicate criminal records with impressions of 10 fingers separately. Henry employed few selected Indian police officers, viz. Khan Bahadur Azizul Huq and Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose to work under his general supervision till the classification was evolved, which remains the basic system even to-day. It was Khan Bahadur Azizul Huq who evolved a mathematical formula to supplement Henry’s idea of sorting slips in 1024 pigeon holes, based on fingerprint patterns. Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose made further contribution to the fingerprint science by evolving an extended systern of sub-classification, a telegraphic code for finger impression and a system of single-digit classification. Henry approached the Government to seek approval for replacing the anthropometric data by fingerprints for the identification of habitual criminals. Government readily agreed, and the first fingerprint bureau in the world was officially declared open at Calcutta in July 1897, although the collection of record slips had started a few years earlier. Thus, the personnel identification solely on the basis of fingerprints commenced in India.

:: Department of explosives

When the use of explosives for subversive activities became common, it was found necessary to detect the causes of explosion, either accidental or intentional. The foundation of the Department of Explosives was laid when the first chief inspector of explosives was appointed in the year 1898, with his headquarters at Nagpur. Later, five regional offices at Calcutta, Bombay, Agra, Madras and Gwalior, and three sub-offices at Shivkashi. Gomia and Asallsol were opened. They developed competence to provide scientific clues in respect of explosives as well as the possible causes of explosions. Their expertise came handy in police investigations in the crimes related to explosions and for evolving various provisions under the Explosives & Petroleum Act.

:: Government examiner of questioned document, shimla

The British Government of Bengal felt the necessity of identifying the handwritings on the secret documents connected with the Indian independence movement and, therefore, created the post of Government Handwriting Expert of Bengal. Mr. CR Hardless, the then Superintendent in the A.G.’s office in Bengal, was appointed to this post in 1904. This set-up was shifted to Shimla in the year 1906 and was placed under the control of the Director, CID. A post of Handwriting Expert for the Government of India was created and Mr. CR Hardless was appointed to this post. He was replaced by Mr. F Brewester, a police officer from the West Bengal CID, and was designated as the Government Examiner of Questioned Documents (GEQD). At first, the work of this office was mainly confined to the identification of writings on secret documents. Later, as the application of this branch of science was felt in many other cases, the services of this office were thrown open to criminal as well as civil court cases. During the World War II, this organization took up the additional work of secret censorship, including the detection of invisible writings and training of military personnel in this field of science.

:: Serologist to the government of india

When the science of examining human blood developed in India, it became possible to examine blood and seminal stains in criminal investigations. Realising the importance of Forensic Serology, an institute named as Serology Department’ was established in Calcutta in 1910. The head of this institute was designated as Imperial Serologist to the Government of India. Dr. Hankin helped in establishing this department. Though the scientific techniques for serological examination were at the infancy stage, this institute provided valuable scientific support by analyzing biological materials for crime investigations. After independence, the department was renamed as ‘Office of the Serologist and Chemical Examiner to the Government of India’.

:: Footprint section of criminal investigation department

During the year 1915, a Footprint Section was established under the CID, Government of Bengal, which helped the police authorities to identify criminals through the examination of footprints collected from the scene of crime. SM Edwardes recorded the following instance in his book ‘Bombay City Police’ showing the use of the footmarks in police work. ‘On several occasions, Indian constables distinguished themselves by acts of bravery and examples of professional acumen. The detection of a burglary in the showroom of an English firm was entirely due to the action of a Hindu constable, who noticed on a piece of furniture the marks of a foot possessing certain peculiarities, which he remembered having seen before in the foot of an ex-convict.’

:: Note forgery section in criminal investigation department

During 1917, a Note Forgery Section was set up under the CID, Government of Bengal, to undertake the examination of forged currency notes. The Revenue Department also started its own laboratory for identification of opium and narcotics, liquor analysis and estimation of purity levels of precious metals like gold, silver, etc. Similarly, Government Mint and Security Printing Departments at Nasik also established their own laboratories for detecting cases of counterfeit and forged currency notes.

:: Ballistics laboratory

In 1930, an Arms Expert was appointed and a small ballistic laboratory was set up under the Calcutta Police to deal with the examination of firearms. As the menace of firearms grew, other State CIDs also established small ballistics laboratories to help them in the criminal investigation.

:: Scientific sections in the criminal investigation department

During 1936, a Scientific Section was set up under the CID in Bengal and facilities were created for examination of bullets, cartridge cases, firearms, etc., used in committing crime. Few other states also started scientific sections in their CID, where investigations on fingerprints, footprints, firearms and questioned documents were also carried out. Gradually, more and more branches of science were embraced and the laboratories gained maturity over the years.

:: State forensic science laboratory, calcutta

The first state forensic science laboratory in India was established in the year 1952 at Calcutta. This laboratory became fully operational in the year 1953. The Medico-legal Section of the Chemical Examiner’s Laboratory was also transferred to this laboratory. During the year 1955, a small unit of Physics was established in the West Bengal State Forensic Science Laboratory to deal with various physical examinations of exhibits encountered in crime investigation. During the year 1957, the Physics unit developed into a full-fledged Physics Section. In the same year, the Footprint and the Note Forgery Sections of Criminal Investigation Department were transferred to this laboratory and in the following year General Chemistry Section of the Chemical Examiner’s Laboratory was also transferred to this laboratory. Thus the first multidisciplinary forensic science laboratory came into existence in the country.

:: Central finger print bureau

On the recommendations of the Royal Police Commission of 1902-03, the first Central Finger Print Bureau (CFPB) in India was established in 1905 at Shimla. It, however, suffered a setback and was abolished in 1922 as a result of retrenchment proposals of the Inchape Committee. The CFPB restarted functioning from 1955 in Delhi under the administrative control of Intelligence Bureau (IB). The major role envisaged for CFPB was to coordinate the activities of State FPBx in tracing/locating inter-state criminals. During August 1956, the CFPB was shifted to Calcutta and remained under the administrative control of IB. During September 1973, it was transferred to the Central Bureau of Investigation and during July 1986, the administrative control of the CFPB was transferred to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) and was again shifted to New Delhi.

:: Central detective training school at calcutta

CDTS, Calcutta, a premier detective training school in India, was established during 1956 and was colocated (in the same premises) with the CFPB, Calcutta. The aim of establishing such a school was to impart training in scientific investigation of crimes like drug abuse, terrorism, explosion, crime against women, investigation of road accidents and enforcement of traffic laws, etc.

:: Central forensic science laboratories

The first Central Forensic Science Laboratory was established at Calcutta during 1957. To begin with, this laboratory was organised into four basic disciplines viz. Forensic Physics, Forensic Chemistry, Forensic Biology and Forensic Ballistics. For application of nuclear methods of analysis to criminal investigation, the Neutron Activation Analysis Unit of CFSL, Calcutta was set up in 1970 at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay. During the year 1965, the second central forensic science laboratory was established at Hyderabad, The CFSL, Hyderabad initially established analytical facilities in the disciplines of Forensic Physics, Forensic Chemistry and Forensic Biology. The Central Forensic Science Laboratory, Chandigarh, was established, in the year 1933 at Lahore was shifted to Chandigarh during 1961. Over the years many full-fledged forensic science laboratories were established in various states.

:: Central forensic institute, calcutta

With the establishment of CDTS and CFSL, (later on GEQD also) in the same premises, under the control of Intelligence Bureau, the whole set up was named as the Central Forensic Institute (CFI), Calcutta. A post of Commandant was created during 1958 to look after the overall functioning of all these establishments, which had different roles but with the common larger goal of providing appropriate scientific inputs to the criminal investigation process and administration of criminal justice in the country.

:: Cdts at hyderabad & chandigarh

The Central Detective Training School, Hyderabad was established in 1964, on the pattern of the CDTS, Calcutta, followed by another one at Chandigarh, during 1973. Their main objective was to train the operational police personnel in modern scientific techniques of crime investigation, with a view to improve their professional standard and efficiency.

:: The role of central advisory committees

The Union Government, during 1959, appointed two committees for the purpose of giving a lead to all the States in establishing new forensic science laboratories and improving the existing ones, and for improving the study and application of Forensic Medicine. These committees were (i) Central Forensic Science Advisory Committee and (ii) Central Medico-legal Advisory Committee. The Central Medicolegal Advisory Committee was to advise the Central and the State Governments on matters pertaining to medico-legal procedures and practices. The Central Advisory Committee on Forensic Science considered the issues related to the sphere of Forensic Science (excluding forensic medicine). The Central Medico-legal Advisory Committee was discontinued whereas the Central Forensic Science Advisory Committee was converted into Standing Committee on Forensic Science during the year 1972, which is functional even today in BPR&D.

:: Indian academy of forensic science

The Indian Academy of Forensic Sciences (IAFS) was established in the year 1960. This academy started a biennial scientific journal, which served as a forum for the exchange of ideas in forensic science with the other international bodies. The role of the Academy was also to hold annual scientific meetings/seminars or assist in holding seminars in forensic science. In fact, it was at the instance of this Academy that the Government of India established the Neutron Activation Analysis Unit to cater for the forensic needs in the country.

:: Teaching of forensic science in the universities

The question of introducing criminology and forensic science as the courses of study at the university level in India was taken up with the Vice-Chancellors of various universities during 1950, but the progress made in this direction was not encouraging. The need for university teaching of criminology and forensic science was also stressed in various annual meetings of the Central Advisory Committee on Forensic Science. A deputation headed by Shri KF Rustamji met the Chairman, University Grants Commission in August 1961 and the matter was again taken up by Shri DP Kohli, the then Director, Central Bureau of Investigation in 1967. As a result of these discussions, Dr DS Kothari, the then Chairman, University Grants Commission set up a high level committee to advise the Commission on the steps to be taken for introduction of Criminology and Forensic Sciences in university education. It recommended that universities should be encouraged to introduce courses in Criminology at the under-graduate level and postgraduate courses in Criminology and Forensic Science should be started only in a central autonomous institution, which should be affiliated to a university. Consequently three Universities viz., University of Sagar, Madras and Patiala started undergraduate and post-graduate courses in forensic science. It was further suggested that, as an initial step in this direction, one institute under the Central Government should be established in Delhi. The Committee recommended those two courses viz. Master’s Degree in Criminology and Master’s Degree in Forensic Science should be organised in this Institute, besides Diploma courses for in-service personnel. The institute should also be developed as a center for research in Criminology and Forensic Science and should act as a clearinghouse of up-to-date information in these fields.

:: Institute of criminology & forensic science at new delhi

After a series of debates at the Government level, it was decided that initially the Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science should be established only for training the in-service personnel and for conducting research in the field of forensic science. It was felt that unless the State governments and the consumer organizations agreed to participate in the scheme, it would not be wise to start courses for granting postgraduate degrees. However, the ultimate objective of the Institute was to develop into a full-fledged academic institution affiliated to a university. With the above aim in view, the Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science (ICFS) was established in Delhi during 1971 with the limited objectives of imparting training to the in-service personnel and conducting research in Criminology and Forensic Science. It was also envisaged that the Institute should have two distinct faculties viz. the Faculty of Criminology and the Faculty of Forensic Science and both should have a number of eminent teachers and researchers with adequate background and field experience.

:: Creation of forensic science division at bpr&d

On an invitation from the Government of India, Dr. VK Street, an eminent forensic scientist from the Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Edinburgh, UK, visited different Indian forensic science institutions during 1972 and submitted a report to the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. He strongly recommended for creation of a post of Chief Forensic Scientist in the Ministry of Home Affairs to look after its forensic science activities and to pay whole time attention for the development of this science in India. The Standing Committee on Forensic Science, during 1973, also recommended for the creation of a post of Chief Forensic Scientist so that the activities, which needed scientific inputs at the Union Government level, could be properly coordinated. The post of Chief Forensic Scientist was finally sanctioned during 1983, and the Forensic Science Directorate was created in BPR&D.

:: Recommendations of scientific advisory committee to the cabinet

During 1983, the then Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet (SAC-C) under the overall guidance of an Expert Committee chaired by Prof. M. M. Sharma, FRS, recommended that the laboratories in Delhi, Calcutta and Hyderabad must be developed as S & T institutions, functioning in an autonomous fashion, with complete modernization of equipment and manpower capabilities. In pursuance of these recommendations, the Government of India declared the forensic science institutions, at the central Government level as Science and Technology institutions. Based on the observations of the Expert Group of the SAC-C, BPR&D evolved a master plan for restructuring each CFSL of the BPR&D into fifteen scientific divisions. In the first phase, the three Central Forensic Science Laboratories at Calcutta, Hyderabad, and Chandigarh were restructured into six scientific division viz. Biology, Ballistics, Chemistry, Explosive, Physics, and Toxicology. Similarly, the offices of the Government Examiners of Questioned Documents at Shimia, Calcutta, and Hyderabad were strengthened in terms of manpower. Besides augmentation of staff, all the BPR&D laboratories registered significant progress in the acquisition of sophisticated analytical equipment and updating/modernizing the laboratory and library facilities for smooth working of these institutions.

:: A new mandate to the cfsls of bpr&d

During mid 1990’s, it was realised that most of the States have established their own forensic science laboratories and hence the role of CFSLs to provide forensic analytical support to different states has got diluted. Hence the utility of three CFSLs at the national level was questioned. During 1997, this realization led to the process of defining the role of the CFSLs of BPR&D, de novo. The justification for the existence of the three Central Forensic Science Laboratories under the BPR&D was thought to be two folds. One, they should act as epitomes of quality and high standards for the State Laboratories to emulate. They should not only set visibly higher standards in quality of analytical processes and reporting accuracy, but also should be the repository of Standards and benchmarks against which the performance of all the State FSLs can be judged. BPR&D should, therefore, have a decisive say in the process of accreditation, not only of its own CFSLs/GEsQD, but also of all the State FSLs. Secondly, since forensic science is one of the most dynamic sciences, CFSLs should provide R&D support to this field of science. Every new research, development and invention in any discipline of science should have a potential of application in forensic science. Newer, better and more reliable technologies developed in all the disciplines need to be harnessed for the fight against crime. The

BPR&D CFSLs should scout around for new developments outside the realm of forensic science and adapt them for use in Ms, standardize the processes and disseminate them to the State FSLs. In order to perform this yeomen service, the CFSLs need to maintain very high standards and specialization, way beyond what is possible in the State FSLs. Strategy was evolved to bring about a complete paradigm change in the structure of the three BPR&D CFSLs and provide them a new focussed mandate of R&D and specialized training. It emerged that while preserving their composite structure, the three laboratories should have subject-specific exclusiveness and be developed as the ‘Centers of Excellence’ for research and development and specialized training in the designated fields. Consequently, during 1998, the three CFSLs were reorganized with an aim to generate synergy and focus attention on research and development activities in the thrust areas of forensic science. This was possible only if all the available resources are pooled in the designated Centers of Excellence, rather than spread them very thin on the whole ground. Besides focussing on their core activity of R&D and specialized training in the designated field of forensic science, these laboratories also undertake crime case examination in all the fields of forensic science. However, the routine forensic analysis case work has now been restricted to those received from the Central Government organizations and State Governments/Union Territories, which have not yet established their own forensic science facilities. These laboratories also act as the referral centers for handling forensic analysis of crime cases requiring extensive investigation and high expertise, received from the courts of law, state and central forensic science institutions and other crime investigating agencies in India. The designated fields were chosen as follows: CFSL, Calcutta Forensic Biological Sciences CFSL, Hyderabad Forensic Chemical Sciences CFSL, Chandigarh Forensic Physical Sciences The Neutron Activation Analysis Unit of CFSL, Calcutta, operating at the BARC, Mumbai, was brought under the administrative control of CFSL, Hyderabad.

:: Establishment of dna typing laboratory at cfsl calcutta

In response to the rising demands of providing high technology to the crime investigation process, BPR&D established the first Forensic DNA Typing facility at CFSL, Calcutta, during 1998. The implementation of this state-of-the-art technique represents significant advancements in the forensic biology in the country. The DNA Typing Unit at CFSL Calcutta is equipped with the most contemporary techniques of DNA typing, namely, Polymerize Chain Reaction (PCR) based method, HLADQ alpha and Polymarker technique, and Locus Specific Restricted Fragment Length Polymorphism technique. This laboratory, after being functional, has been referred many crime cases pertaining to murder, rape, rape and murder, paternity disputes, organ transplant, exchange of babies in hospitals etc. DNA Typing facility has further been upgraded to conduct ‘Short Tandem Repeats Sequence based DNA Typing.

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