Christopher Columbus

Gavrilo Princip

Biography: Gavrilo Princip was born in the village of Obljaj, near Bosansko Grahovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria-Hungarian Empire, the son of a postman. His parents, Petar and Marija (née Mićić), had nine children, five sons and four daughters, six of whom died in infancy. Gavrilo's health was poor from an early age and it was further aggravated by his living conditions. His impoverished parents could not provide for him and sent him to live with an older brother in Zagreb. Most historians agree that Princip was a member of Young Bosnia; that the group got its weapons from the Black Hand (Црна рука/Crna ruka); and that the latter group was at least somewhat responsible for coordination, training, and/or supplying weapons for the forthcoming assassination attempt on Franz Ferdinand.[6] However, Princip had minimal contact with the group, and did not associate with them. The Young Bosnia movement was a group made up of Serbs, Croats, and Bosnian Muslims, committed to the independence of the South Slavic peoples from Austria-Hungary. In February 1912, Princip took part in protest demonstrations against the Sarajevo authorities for which he was expelled from school. Following his expulsion, he moved to Belgrade. In Belgrade, he sought to gain admission to the First Belgrade Gymnasium but failed the entrance exam. On 6 October 1908, Bosnia-Herzegovina was declared a part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire by Emperor Franz Josef. This created a stir among Slavic people of southern Europe and the Russian Czar who opposed this annexation. In 1912, Serbia was abuzz with mobilization for the First Balkan War. Princip planned to join the komite, irregular Serbian guerrilla forces under Serbian Major Vojislav Tankosić which had fought in Macedonia against Ottoman units. Tankosić was a member of the central committee of the secret society Unification or Death (Ujedinjenje ili Smrt). Princip, however, was rejected by the komite in Belgrade because of his small physical stature. He then went to Prokuplje in Southern Serbia where he sought a personal interview with Tankosić. Tankosić, however, rejected Princip due to being "too small and too weak." Vladimir Dedijer argued that this rejection was "one of the primary personal motives which pushed him to do something exceptionally brave in order to prove to others that he was their equal."

Contribution: ➢ Associated with the freedom movement Mlada Bosna.

➢ assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. ➢ Implicated a number of members of the Serbian Military, leading Austria-Hungary to issue a démarche to Serbia known as the July Ultimatum.

Geoffrey Chaucer

Biography: Chaucer was born circa 1343 in London, though the exact date and location of his birth are not known. His father and grandfather were both London vintners and before that, for several generations, the family members were merchants in Ipswich. His name is derived from the French chausseur, meaning shoemaker.[1] In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffrey's father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the twelve-year-old boy to her daughter in an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the £250 fine levied suggests that the family was financially secure, upper middle-class, if not in the elite.[2] John married Agnes Copton, who, in 1349, inherited properties including 24 shops in London from her uncle, Hamo de Copton, who is described as the "moneyer" at the Tower of London. There are few details of Chaucer's early life and education but compared with near contemporary poets, William Langland and the Pearl Poet, his life is well documented, with nearly five hundred written items testifying to his career. The first time he is mentioned is in 1357, in the household accounts of Elizabeth de Burgh, the Countess of Ulster, when he became the noblewoman's page through his father's connections.[3] He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king, collecting and inventorying scrap metal. In 1359, in the early stages of the Hundred Years' War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Elizabeth's husband, as part of the English army. In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Rheims, becoming a prisoner of war. Edward contributed £16 as part of a ransom, [4] and Chaucer was released.

Contribution: ➢ Unfinished frame narrative The Canterbury Tales. ➢ Father of English literature.

➢ The first author to demonstrate the artistic legitimacy of the vernacular English language, rather than French or Latin. ➢ Source of the English vernacular tradition and the "father" of modern English literature. ➢ The first founder of our fair language.

Georges Buffon

Biography: He was born at Montbard, Côte-d'Or. His father, Benjamin Leclerc, was the Lord of Dijon and Montbard. He attended Jesuit College from the age of ten, and then University of Angers. He began studying law, but soon began to concentrate on his twin interests of mathematics and science. He was later forced to leave university after becoming involved in a duel, and set off on a grand tour of Europe, returning when his father's remarriage threatened his inheritance. He first made his mark in the field of mathematics and in Sur le jeu de franc-carreau introduced differential and integral calculus into probability theory. During this period he corresponded with the Swiss mathematician, Gabriel Cramer. The problem of Buffon's needle in probability theory is named after him. His translations of works by Isaac Newton and Stephen Hales' Vegetable staticks into French heightened his interest in biology. He moved to Paris where he made the acquaintance of Voltaire and other intellectuals. In 1734 he joined the French Academy of Sciences at the age of 27. In 1739 he was appointed head of the Jardin du Roi (later Jardin des Plantes), Paris, by his patron, Minister Maurepas. He converted it from the King's garden to a research centre and museum, and the park was considerably enlarged, with the addition of many trees and plants from around the world. Leclerc was made Comte (Count) de Buffon in 1773. He died in Paris in 1788.

Contribution:

➢ Influenced the next two generations of naturalists, including JeanBaptiste Lamarck and Cuvier. ➢ Published thirty-five quarto volumes of his Histoire naturelle during his lifetime, and nine more volumes were published after his death. ➢ The father of all thought in natural history in the second half of the 18th century. ➢ His great work Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière (1749–1788: in 35 volumes, 9 additional volumes published after his death by Lacépède). It included everything known about the natural world up until that date. "Written in a brilliant style, this work was read... by every educated person in Europe."

Henry the Navigator

Biography: Henry was born in 1394 in Porto, probably when the royal couple was being housed in the old mint of the city, nowadays called Casa do Infante (Prince's House). He was the third son born to Philippa of Lancaster, the sister of King Henry IV of England. Henry was 21 when he, his father and brothers conquered the Moorish port of Ceuta in northern Morocco, that had been for a long time the base for Barbary pirates that assaulted the Portuguese coast, depopulating villages by capturing their inhabitants to be sold in the African slave market. This attack was successful, as it inspired Henry to explore down the coast of Africa, most of which was unknown to Europeans. The desire to locate the source of the West African gold trade, find the legendary Christian kingdom of Prester John, and stop the pirate attacks on the Portuguese coast were three of his main interests in the region. The ships that sailed the Mediterranean at that time were too slow

and too heavy to make these voyages. Under his direction, a new and much lighter ship was developed, the caravel, which would allow sea captains to sail further, faster and much more efficiently. In 1419, his father appointed him the governor of the province of the Algarve. Died November 13, 1460 (aged 66).

Contribution: ➢ An important figure in the early days of the Portuguese Empire, being

responsible for the beginning of the European worldwide explorations. ➢ Rediscovered the Madeira Islands in 1420, and at Henry's instigation

Portuguese settlers colonized the islands. ➢ Primary organizer of the Portuguese expedition to Tangier in 1437.

James Hopwood Jeans

Biography: On Sept. 11, 1877, James Jeans was born in Ormskirk, Lancashire, the son of a parliamentary journalist. He was brought up in a strict, very religious Victorian home atmosphere. A precocious child, he was reading by age 4 and had a remarkable ability to memorize numbers. At an early age he also became interested in physics, as well as in mechanical devices, especially clocks - the subject of a short book he wrote at age 9. In 1897 Jeans entered Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1903 received his master's degree. In 1904 he was appointed university lecturer in mathematics at Cambridge; and in 1906, at the very early age of 28, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society - all this in spite of the fact that during 1902-1903 tuberculosis of the joints forced him to go to several sanatoriums. During his illness, from which he completely recovered, he wrote his first book, The Dynamical Theory of Gases. Jeans taught applied mathematics at Princeton University, N.J., from 1905 to 1909. He returned to Cambridge as Stokes lecturer in 1910 but 2 years later relinquished the position and thereafter devoted full time to research and writing. In 1907 Jeans married Charlotte Tiffany Mitchell; she died in 1934, leaving one daughter. The following year he married Suzanne Hock, a concert organist, with whom Jeans wrote his very popular and informative book Science and Music (1938). They had two sons and a daughter. Jeans

was awarded numerous honorary degrees and professional offices. He was knighted in 1928 and won the coveted Order of Merit in 1939. He was a modest and unassuming man and a devoted father. Jeans died on Sept. 16, 1946, at his home in Dorking, Surrey.

Contribution: ➢ He made important contributions in many areas of physics, including quantum theory, the theory of radiation and stellar evolution. ➢ Is a founder of British cosmology. ➢ One of Jeans' major discoveries, named Jeans length, is a critical radius of an interstellar cloud in space. ➢ The Dynamical Theory of Gases (1904) ➢ Theoretical Mechanics (1906) ➢ Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism (1908) ➢ Physics and Philosophy

Jean-François Champollion

Biography: Champollion was born at Figeac, Lot, the last of seven children (two of whom had already died before he was born). He was raised in humble circumstances; his parents could not afford school for him, and he was eight years old before his older brother Jacques, who was living in Grenoble, began to teach him.[1] This brother, although studious and largely self-educated, did not have Jean-François' genius for language; however, he was talented at earning a living, and supported Jean-François for most of his life.[1] He lived with his brother in Grenoble for several years, and even as a child showed an extraordinary linguistic talent. By the age of 16 he had mastered a dozen languages and had read a paper before the Grenoble Academy concerning the Coptic language. By 20 he could also speak Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Amharic, Sanskrit, Avestan, Pahlavi, Arabic, Syriac, Chaldean, Persian and Ge'ez in addition to his native French.[2] In 1809, he became assistant-professor of History at Grenoble. His interest in oriental languages, especially Coptic, led to his being entrusted with the task of deciphering the writing on the then recently-discovered Rosetta Stone, and he spent the years 1822–1824 on this task. His 1824 work Précis du système hiéroglyphique gave birth to the entire field of modern Egyptology. He also identified the importance of the Turin King List, and dated the Dendera zodiac to the Roman period. His interest in Egyptology was originally inspired

by Napoleon's Egyptian Campaigns 1798–1801. Champollion subsequently made Professor of Egyptology at the Collège de France.

was

Contribution: ➢ Deciphered the Egyptian hieroglyphs with the help of groundwork laid by his predecessors: Athanasius Kircher, Silvestre de Sacy, Johan David Akerblad, Thomas Young, and William John Bankes. ➢ Champollion translated parts of the Rosetta Stone in 1822, showing that the Egyptian writing system was a combination of phonetic and ideographic signs.

Jean Paul

Biography: Jean Paul born May 24, 1744, at Boudry, near Neufchâtel, Switzerland. In youth he made himself master of several languages; subsequently he studied medicine at Bordeaux and at Paris, and, after traveling extensively in Europe, removed to London. There he practiced medicine and published An Essay on Man (1772) and The Chains of Slavery (1776). Returning to Paris, he wrote on optical subjects and electricity and entered the service of the Count of Artois as a veterinary surgeon in 1777. The fruits of his studies in physics appeared in a number of publications on electricity and optics. Upon the outbreak of the Revolution, Marat soon came to the front as one of its most extravagant, passionate leaders, and won a large following. After several abortive journalistic experiments he established, Sept. 12, 1789, a journal, Le Publiciste Parisien, which as L'Ami du Peuple and, after Sept. 21, 1792, as Le Journal de la République became one of the most famous papers of the revolutionary period. In it Marat attacked the moderates of the Constituent Assembly and later the Girondists with such violence that he was compelled on several occasions to take refuge in England. Danton, who had found Marat useful in the preparation of the events which led up to the storming of the Tuileries (Aug. 10, 1792), made him a member of the Commune of Paris. It was in a great measure the influence of Marat which led to the cruelties and massacres of September, 1792, in the midst of which he was elected a member of the Convention. His journal became more radical and vehement than ever. During the King's trial he was urgent for his immediate execution,

and in his journal called upon the people to slay 200,000 of the adherents of the old régime. On April 14, 1793, he was brought before the Revolutionary Tribunal on the charge of fomenting sedition, but was acquitted (April 24) and returned to the Convention more powerful than ever. He played probably the leading part in the events of May 31 to June 2, which brought about the downfall of the Girondists, who had long regarded him as their inveterate enemy. On July 13, 1793, Marat was stabbed in his own house by Charlotte Corday (q.v.). His death aroused tremendous public feeling. His bust was placed in the Hall of the Convention; the scene of his murder was painted by David; fêtes in perpetuation of his memory were held all over France; mothers named their children after the "martyr of the people," and in November the Convention decreed to Marat's remains the honors of the Panthéon.

Contribution: ➢ His journalism was renowned for its fiery character and uncompromising stance towards the new government, "enemies of the revolution" and basic reforms for the poorest members of society. ➢ His constant persecution, consistent voice and uncanny prophetic powers brought him the trust of the people and made him their unofficial link to the radical Jacobin group that came to power in June 1793.

John Cabot

Biography: Few hard facts are known about John Cabot, but he is historically important because his explorations were the basis for England's early claims on North America. By all accounts, Cabot was not English; he was born Giovanni Caboto, probably in Genoa, Italy, around 1450. He later moved to Venice and became a naturalized citizen there about 1476, working as a sailor and trader in the eastern Mediterranean. Sometime in the 1490s he ended up in England, where he was given permission by King Henry VII to seek a northern route to Asia across the Atlantic. In 1497 Cabot sailed from

Bristol, England in the ship Matthew to what is now eastern Canada. Precisely where he landed is not clear; the possibilities include Newfoundland, Cape Breton Island, Labrador and Nova Scotia. He returned successfully to England and received permission to make a second voyage in 1498. He and 300 crew members set out from Bristol in May of that year, but were never heard from again. Cabot's son, Sebastian, was a famous explorer and cartographer in his own right, and may have accompanied his father on the successful 1497 voyage... Cabot's 1497 voyage was just five years after the famous first voyage, in 1492, of Christopher Columbus.

Contribution: ➢ The first Europeans to set foot on the North American mainland since the Vikings, whose voyages half a millennium earlier were unknown in the age of discovery.

Lucius Junius Brutus

Biography: Brutus gained the trust of Tarquin's family by feigning slow-wittedness (in Latin brutus translates to dullard), thereby allowing the Tarquins to underestimate him as a potential threat. He accompanied Tarquin's sons on a trip to the Oracle of Delphi. The sons asked the oracle who would be the next ruler of Rome. The Oracle responded the next person to kiss his mother would become king. Brutus interpreted "mother" to mean the Earth, so he pretended to trip and kissed the ground.[1] Upon returning to Rome, Brutus was forced to fight in one of Rome's unending wars with neighboring Italian tribes. Brutus returned to the city once he heard about the rape of Lucretia. Lucretia, believing that the rape dishonored her and her family, committed suicide by stabbing herself with a dagger after confessing all to a gathering of the extended family (including Brutus). This event proved to be the straw that broke the camel's back. According to legend, Brutus grabbed the dagger from Lucretia's breast after her death and immediately shouted for the

overthrow of the Tarquins. Soon, Brutus would achieve this goal, causing Tarquin Superbus and his family to flee back to their ancestral home of Etruria in exile. In place of kings, Brutus declared power to be in the hands of the Senate, with him as one of the first two Praetors, executive officers that would later become the Roman office of Consul. His consulship came to an end during a battle with the Etruscans, who had allied themselves with the Tarquins to restore them to power in Rome. Brutus's death is romantically described by Livy during the battle. Arruns Tarquinius, the king's son, challenged Brutus from across the battlefield on horseback. Charging at one another, without any thought to their own defense, both were impaled upon one another's spears. There is some confusion as to the details of Brutus' life. His consulship, for example, may have been a later embellishment to give the republican institutions greater legitimacy by associating them with the overthrower of the kings. Similarly the tale of Brutus' execution of his own sons for failing in their military duties may well have been a later invention.

Contribution: ➢ The founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of the first consuls in 509 BC. He was the primary ancestor of the Junius family in Ancient Rome, including Marcus Junius Brutus. ➢ Brutus was a hero of Republicanism during the Enlightenment and Neoclassical periods, and artists like Jacques-Louis David painted scenes of his life.

Michelangelo

Biography: Michelangelo was born on March 6, 1475 in Caprese near Arezzo, Tuscany. His family had for several generations been small-scale bankers in Florence but his father, Lodovico di Leonardo di Buonarroti di Simoni, failed to maintain the bank's financial status, and held occasional government positions. At the time of Michelangelo's birth, his father was the Judicial administrator of the small town of Caprese and local administrator of Chiusi. Michelangelo's mother was Francesca di Neri del Miniato di Siena. The Buonarrotis claimed to descend from the Countess Mathilde of Canossa; this claim remains unproven, but Michelangelo himself believed it. Several

months after Michelangelo's birth the family returned to Florence where Michelangelo was raised. At later times, during the prolonged illness and after the death of his mother when he was seven years old, Michelangelo lived with a stonecutter and his wife and family in the town of Settignano where his father owned a marble quarry and a small farm. Giorgio Vasari quotes Michelangelo as saying, "If there is some good in me, it is because I was born in the subtle atmosphere of your country of Arezzo. Along with the milk of my nurse I received the knack of handling chisel and hammer, with which I make my figures." In Rome, Michelangelo lived near the church of Santa Maria di Loreto. Here, according to the legend, he fell in love with Vittoria Colonna, marquise of Pescara and a poet. His house was demolished in 1874, and the remaining architectural elements saved by the new proprietors were destroyed in 1930. Today a modern reconstruction of Michelangelo's house can be seen on the Gianicolo hill. It is also during this period that skeptics allege Michelangelo executed the scultpure Laocoön and His Sons which resides in the Vatican.

Contribution: ➢ Created two of the most influential works in fresco in the history of

Western art: the scenes from Genesis on the ceiling and The Last Judgment on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. ➢ Pioneered the Mannerist style at the Laurentian Library. ➢ He was the first Western artist whose biography was published while he was alive. ➢ Painted the Holy Family and St John, also known as the Doni Tondo or the Holy Family of the Tribune: it was commissioned for the marriage of Angelo Doni and Maddalena Strozzi and in the 17th century hung in the room known as the Tribune in the Uffizi.

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