Children And Computers At Home

299

Work 32 (2009) 299–310 DOI 10.3233/WOR-2009-0828 IOS Press

Children and computer use in the home: Workstations, behaviors and parental attitudes Lisa Kimmerlya and Dan Odellb,∗ a

b

IT-Stat Corporation, Bellevue, WA, USA Microsoft Corporation, Hardware Group, Redmond, WA, USA

Received 17 January 2008 Accepted 28 April 2008

Abstract. This study examines the home computer use of 26 children (aged 6–18) in ten upper middle class families using direct observation, typing tests, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The goals of the study were to gather information on how children use computers in the home and to understand how both parents and children perceive this computer use. Large variations were seen in computing skills, behaviors, and opinions, as well as equipment and workstation setups. Typing speed averaged over 40 words per minute for children over 13 years old, and less than 10 words per minute for children younger than 10. The results show that for this sample, Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) concerns ranked very low among parents, whereas security and privacy concerns ranked much higher. Meanwhile, children’s behaviors and workstations were observed to place children in awkward working postures. Photos showing common postures are presented. The greatest opportunity to improve children’s work postures appears to be in providing properly-sized work surfaces and chairs, as well as education. Possible explanations for the difference between parental perception of computing risks and the physical reality of children’s observed ergonomics are discussed and ideas for further research are proposed.

1. Introduction Data collected by the Current Population Survey in 2003 showed that 91% of children in the US aged 3– 18 used computers [7]. Use was highest among White and Asian ethnic groups and for those in families earning annual incomes in excess of $75K. Use of computers was shown to begin early with 80% of those in Kindergarten already computing. By the time children reached high school, 97% were engaging in computerrelated activities. Children in other studies reported spending the majority of time on computers at home engaged in activities other than school work [9]. Although these statistics do not speak to the intensity of use, since the year 2000 several groups have cautioned that widespread computer use exposes children ∗ Address for correspondence: Dan Odell, One Microsoft Way, Redmond, WA 98052, USA. Tel.: +1 425 706 5643; Fax: +1 425 867 3548; E-mail: [email protected].

to numerous developmental risk factors that may have undesirable long-term consequences [2,15], including physical harm in the form of Repetitive Stress Injuries (RSIs) [5,11]. More recent studies argue that while children differ from adults in their use of information technology, earlier exposure to computers and greater cumulative exposure over time may similarly increase their risk for injury [4]. A study published in 2002 showed that 76 children in a group of 131 (58%) American 6th graders experienced at least mild musculoskeletal discomfort associated with the number of hours spent computing [6]. Those with furniture not designed specifically for use with computers and those who were unable to touchtype were more likely to report pain. While not studied in conjunction with current experiences of pain, laboratory research done in 2006 showed that small children working with adult-sized computer input devices exhibited non-neutral wrist postures. These postures are commonly associated in adults with the development of upper extremity symptoms [1,3]. The findings offer

1051-9815/09/$17.00  2009 – IOS Press and the authors. All rights reserved

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avenues for exploring preventive solutions and possibly eliminating some of the physical hazards associated with computer use by young people. Given the prevalence of computers and their use by children in the home, there is general interest in understanding how computers, workstations and computer peripherals are used within the landscape of the home. While self-report data may be useful for census statistics or other research endeavors, actually observing children interacting with computers in their natural settings can provide more information, even though it can be difficult to get this access. The goals of this study were to visit homes with children who use computers and see firsthand the furniture used (or lack thereof), watch emergent computer users manipulate computer peripherals, and note the working postures of children. Additional information was sought by interviewing parents and children and gathering opinions and concerns surrounding childhood computer use. This approach attempted to provide real-use insight not accessible in laboratory settings.

2. Methodology 2.1. Participants Ten two-parent families living within an upper middle class suburban neighborhood near Seattle, WA were interviewed. Diversity was sought in family size, child gender, and sibling age ranges. Altogether, 13 males and 13 females (aged 6 to 18 years) were observed within their home computing environments. 2.2. Worksheets Six worksheets were developed to organize information during data collection. A single rater interviewed/observed the families while completing the worksheets described below. 2.2.1. Worksheet – A typical week in our household To understand computer use within the context of family lifestyle, weekly activities of each family member were mapped out on a grid with days of the week in rows and two-hour time increments in columns. Attempts were made to characterize activities around the following dichotomies: inside vs. outside, active vs. passive, work vs. fun, and social vs. isolated.

2.2.2. Worksheet – Our computer equipment For each family member, information was collected on types of computers used (desktop vs. laptop), computer and peripheral age and acquisition (handeddown, parent purchased, child purchased, etc.), internet connectivity, standard log-in procedures, physical locations (while home and away), time and duration of computer use, and reasons for computing. 2.2.3. Worksheet – Computing activities checklist All users were queried about computer utilization for communication, music and other media, education, gaming, and shopping. Details about instant messaging, social networking site usage, and favorite web sites and software titles were of particular interest. 2.2.4. Worksheet – Ergonomic, environmental, and behavioral observations All of the children were asked to demonstrate where and how they typically use computers while at home. A checklist was created based on relevant sources [5,11, 14] and notes were taken on equipment “fit” and modifications (e.g. foot rests, pillows, adjustable trays, monitors, chairs, desks, etc.), posture and ergonomics (e.g. foot position, reclining, hunching, reaching, wrist posture, and orientation to the computer screen), and other considerations (e.g. lighting, isolation, multi-tasking, break-taking, time restrictions, and specialized equipment use). 2.2.5. Worksheet – Discomfort inventory and typing skills Children were asked if they ever experience discomfort, numbness, or tingling while computing, or if their arms ever hurt during the night. They were asked if they knew of anyone suffering a severe injury related to computer use. Additionally, they were asked if they had changed computing habits as a result of their own discomfort or someone else’s symptoms or pain. Participants older than seven years were administered a typing test and observed typing skills were rated using a 7-point scale where “1” = Proficient Touch Typist (evidenced by use of all ten fingers, eyes on the screen, and returning to the “home” keys at rest) to “7” = Hunt and Peck Typist (using one or two fingers, eyes on the keyboard, and hands moving over the keyboard throughout the typing exercise). Again, a single rater performed the evaluation.

L. Kimmerly and D. Odell / Children and computer use in the home: Workstations, behaviors and parental attitudes

2.2.6. Worksheet – Parental perceptions on children’s computing After an open-ended prompt (“What concerns do you have for your children around computing?”), parents were asked to respond to a checklist of potential concerns under the following categories: Physical, Emotional/Social, Intellectual, and Moral [2]. Lastly, parents were asked to describe the primary benefits of having computers in the lives of their children. The specific questions are shown in Table 3 in Section 3 (Results).

2.3. Tools A digital camera was used to collect images of children interacting with their computers. The photos were used to verify the postural and equipment observations made in the field. A typing test from TypingMaster Pro software [16] was administered using a USB flash drive to capture typing speed and accuracy.

2.4. Procedure Semi-structured contextual interviews were conducted during a two-hour session with each family during home visits when all children and at least one parent could be present. Initial information gathering with all participants (usually at their dining room table) was followed by one-on-one observation of each child, including photography of computer interactions and environments, and testing of typing skills. The study concluded with parental interviews about safety concerns and perceived benefits of home computing.

2.5. Data analysis Descriptive statistics including cross tabulations with Chi-Square tests were produced for all measures of interest using SPSS 15.0 for Windows. Associations were explored with t-testing, analysis of variance, and Pearson correlations for the following computed variables: total reported hours spent computing, incidence of discomfort, typing speed and skill, total number of ergonomic “red flags” observed, and total number of parental safety concerns indicated. Test results were considered significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

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3. Results 3.1. Descriptive findings 3.1.1. Family computing usage patterns The families participating in this study had a minimum of two children and a maximum of four. Age differences between siblings ranged from one to 11 years. On average, siblings were four years apart. Seven of ten fathers were characterized by their families as “workaholics” and were unavailable for interview. Six of ten mothers worked for pay (two full-time and four part-time), while the remaining four volunteered several hours per week. Outside of school, families were busy with sports and dance, scouting activities, piano, theater, and art. While some felt they were spending too much time inside and working, most families were satisfied with the level of balance in their lives and were not overly concerned about being socially isolated or inactive. Table 1 contrasts children’s typical computer use patterns at home during the school week and on the weekends for three different age groups. During the week, there was a clear relationship between age and self-reported home computer use. Younger children engaged in fewer sessions for shorter periods of time while older teens were more likely to use computers in two daily sessions lasting two hours or more at a time. On the weekend, the number and duration of sessions was highest for those between the ages of 11 and 14. Weekend use often involved longer durations without taking breaks. Half of the mothers interviewed said their own computer use could best be characterized as short bursts throughout the day with the number of sessions ranging from three to ten. 3.1.2. Computing equipment and locations Eighteen of 26 children (69%), eight of ten mothers (80%) and two of ten fathers (20%) used desktop computers only. Of those using laptops, only five of 26 children (19%), two of ten mothers (20%) and three of ten fathers (30%) used laptops exclusively. The rest, three of 26 children (11%), no mothers (0%) and five of ten fathers (50%) used both a laptop and a desktop. In summary, the mothers and children in this sample tended to use desktop computers, while fathers tended to use laptop computers. Parents were more likely than their children to use computers purchased within the past two years (60% vs. 46%). Sharing of computing equipment was evident in all homes (although two indicated this happened only

Age 6–9 (N = 9) Age 11–14 (N = 11) Age 15–18

Table 1

18%

0%

2

0

# of % of age children group 4 44%

2

6 33%

55%

# of % of age children group 4 44%

1

1 17%

9%

# of % of age children group 1 11%

3

2 50%

18%

# of % of age children group 0 0%

Week Days One Session Two Sessions 1/2 hr or less 1 hr or more 1/2 hr or less 1 hr or more

2

2 33%

18%

# of % of age children group 5 56%

3

3

50%

27%

# of % of age children group 2 22%

1

1

17%

9%

# of % of age children group 0 0%

0

5

0%

45%

# of % of age children group 2 22%

Weekends One Session Two Sessions 1 hr or less 2 hrs or more 1 hr or less 2 hrs or more

Comparison of week day and weekend computer use by age group

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Fig. 1. Percent of each group who use computers in various locations. (Multiple responses possible). Other computing locations included a stairwell, garage, and dining room tables.

Fig. 2. Sampling of equipment observed: A.) non-adjustable workstations, B.) high stools at kitchen counters, and C.) lateral monitor placement with mouse left of keyboard.

in “emergency” situations). Eighty percent of mothers shared a computer with their children, but only half of the fathers did. Fathers were more likely than mothers to have computer passwords for privacy or security (70% vs. 30%). Only 3 of 26 children used passwords, but in one household a fingerprint reader had been set up to identify all users. All ten households had wireless networks or had homes that had been specially wired for computing. Figure 1 contrasts the various locations within households where computers were frequently used. Children were significantly more likely than their parents to compute in bedrooms (46% vs. 0%) (p < 0.01) and significantly less likely to use computers set up in traditional offices (19% vs. 50%) (p < 0.05). Four families (40%) had computers set up in their kitchens that were used by both adults and children. 3.1.3. Computing activities for children The most popular computing activities for children were playing off-line games such as The Sims 2, Lego

Star Wars, and Barbie (62%), listening to music (58%), using Google (50%), playing online games at sites such as Webkinz, Runescape, and Addicting Games (46%), and checking their school grades online (38%). By age 11, all participants except one used e-mail. Only four of ten families had children who used instant messaging; just two families allowed the use of MySpace.com. When asked about online shopping, 38% of the children said they looked at products on the internet in contrast with 15 of the 20 parents (75%) who actually purchased items such as books, technology, and sporting goods online. 3.1.4. Postures, environment, and behaviors The majority of children in this study (77%) sat at desks while using computers. Two families had computers placed on high kitchen counters where the mothers would often stand to use them. (See Fig. 2 for a sampling of in-home workstation set-ups.) Only four of 26 children (15%) were observed with two feet flat on the floor while computing. Most children (65%)

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L. Kimmerly and D. Odell / Children and computer use in the home: Workstations, behaviors and parental attitudes Table 2 Evidence of ergonomic adaptations in computing environments of children

Foot Stool Pillows Keyboard Tray Right-sized Chair Right-size Work Surface

Evidence # of children 1 3 6 9 3

% 4% 12% 23% 35% 12%

Not Needed # of children % 10 39% 13 49% 9 35% 3 12% 3 12%

Could Provide Benefit # of children % 15 57% 10 39% 11 42% 14 53% 20 76%

Fig. 3. Percent of each age group observed with various ergonomic risk factors.

engaged in other activities while using computers, such as watching television or listening to music (multitasking) and only 38% indicated they typically take breaks. While several families claimed to have rules limiting all “screen time” (including television watching) to one hour per day, all admitted that enforcing this was difficult. The percentage of each age group demonstrating observed ergonomic risk factors is illustrated in Fig. 3. The most prevalent risk factors for elementary-aged children were dangling feet, keyboards not at elbow height, elbow angles less than 90 degrees, wrist deviation, and monitors set above eye level. For “tweens” and younger teens (11–14 years), wrist deviation, sitting on feet, and awkward seating postures were most common. The top two ergonomic risk factors observed in older teens were incorrect monitor height and twisting of the torso. Note that these findings indicate that

the younger the children, the greater number of risk factors they face when working at the computer. Figure 4 shows photos of potentially problematic postures for the three different age groups. Although ergonomic adaptations were evident in some homes (see Table 2), a higher percentage of children could have realized a possible benefit by using pillows or footstools, or other equipment and furniture that better fit their physical stature. For example, it was observed that 20 of 26 children (76%) worked at surfaces that were not adjusted to fit their bodies. Even when adjustable chairs were available (N = 13), over half were not adjusted properly. Of the 23 children observed sitting on any type of chair or stool while computing, eleven (48%) had seats that were too big/high and three (13%) had seats that were too small/low. When using standard, adult sized computer mice, children have been shown to work in less neutral wrist pos-

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305

Fig. 4. Examples of postures observed in three children representative of different age groups: A.) 15–18 years, B.) 11–14 years, and C.) 6–9 years.

Fig. 5. Observed mousing postures: A.) wrist extension, B.) wrist pronation, C.) wrist deviation, and D.) two-handed grip with two-fingered force-to-fire.

tures when compared to using smaller laptop mice [1]. In this study, 20 children were observed using full-sized mice, five used internal pointing devices built into their laptops, and only one used a smaller-sized notebook mouse. In addition, incorrect workstation heights contributed to these observed non-neutral postures. See Fig. 5 for photos taken of observed wrist postures during mousing activities in this study. 3.1.5. Experience of discomfort and typing skill measures Five children (19%) made a total of eight complaints about pain or discomfort attributed to computer use. “Playing games too much” was blamed for arm pain in an eight-year-old boy, while mouse scrolling and using a laptop navigation pad for too long were cited as reasons for finger pain in two female subjects. Eye strain was reported in two cases. Two described lower extremity pain from sitting on feet or sitting too long. See photos in Fig. 6 for a sampling of observed

foot positions. A single report of shoulder pain due to hunching forward to type was described. The onset of these reported discomforts was always after working for some time at the computer, rather than chronic or immediate onset. Another three children reported pain or numbness during the night (shoulders, forearms, and wrists), but all felt these problems were caused by factors other than computing. When asked if they knew of someone injured using computers, three (all teens) knew of carpal tunnel cases. Only one subject reported changing his own behavior (“typing the right way”) as a result of someone else’s injury. Results of a typing test administered to all but the four youngest subjects (less than 8 years old) are shown in Fig. 7. For most of those subjects in elementary school, this was a first attempt at formal typing and the word per minute (WPM) average was 5 WPM. This average climbed to nearly 22 WPM for those aged 11 and 12. Younger teens typed at 41 WPM and older teens averaged 57 WPM. By further observing each typist

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Fig. 6. Observed foot positioning: A.) feet on chair with severe knee bend, B.) sitting on one foot, and C.) dangling feet.

Fig. 7. Typing words per minute (WPM) and accuracy percentages by child age.

and rating skills along a 7-point scale, it was observed that the shift from hunting-and-pecking to touch typing was likely to occur in the early teen years. For this age group, typing skill ratings varied considerably in contrast to older teens who clustered on the skilled end of the scale and younger “typists” who rated on the unskilled end. Of those asked where they had learned to type (N = 14), half said they were taught at school and half had taught themselves either through trial-anderror or using typing software tools. 3.1.6. Parental concerns and perceived benefits of computing In response to an open-ended query about concerns for their children while using computers, a majority of parents (69%) stated that inappropriate websites or

online content in general (and MySpace.com in particular) were worrisome. Other concerns included Internet predators, parental rights in monitoring use, and the amount of time spent computing. Given a list of 26 potential concerns, one parent identified 23 topics as problematic while another said none of these issues caused her unease. The average number of concerns was nine. Table 3 ranks parental concerns in four categories based on the responses of the 13 parents who were available for interview. Access to information was stated as the primary benefit of computers by 80% of the families interviewed. Six of ten families pointed to positive impacts on education and homework, while half felt computing enhanced communication and connections with others. Four families mentioned either the benefit of develop-

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Table 3 Ranked parental concerns in four separate categories. Percentages are based on N = 13 Physical # of % parents Visual strain 8 62%

Emotional/Social # of parents Commercial 8 exploitation

Lack life balance

7

54%

Lack of selfdiscipline

6

46%

Plagiarism

Obesity

4

31%

Increased aggression

5

38%

Musculoskeletal injuries

3

23%

Weakened bonds

4

Seizures

0

0%

Social isolation

Toxic emission

0

0%

% 62%

Intellectual # of parents Lack patience 6 for learning

Moral %

# of parents 8

% 62%

46%

Pomography

4

31%

Interacting with strangers

8

62%

Lack of creativity

3

23%

Addiction to computing

8

62%

31%

Stunted imagination

3

23%

Violence

6

46%

3

23%

Poor language skills

3

23%

Lack of purpose

4

31%

Emotional detachment

3

23%

Attention deficit

2

15%

Irresponsible with knowledge

4

31%

Depression

3

23%

Racism

2

15%

ing skills for the future or promoting creativity. None of the families offered recreation and/or stress-reduction as primary benefits, although these represent some of the most frequent computer-based activities for the children in this study.

3.2. Associations On average, those reporting discomfort or night pain (N = 7) spent more total time per week computing than those who claimed to experience no pain (mean = 5.43 hours, SD = 3.81 vs. 2.84 hours, SD = 1.63), but the low number of children reporting pain prevented significance testing and this finding should be interpreted with the understanding that the sample size is very small. Similarly, likely because of the small sample size, no clear relationships were established between pain and the other computed measures: typing speed, typing skill, and parental concerns. No correlations were found between the number of observed ergonomic risk factors, total time spent computing, or the number of concerns expressed by parents. Two statistically significant findings, however, did emerge from this analysis. First, there was a correlation between words per minute typed and total number of ergonomic risks observed (r = −0.481, p < 0.05); those better able to touch type were seen to have fewer ergonomic risk factors. The second significant finding indicates that while WPM correlated highly with age (r = 0.854, p < 0.01), age alone did not appear to be related to ergonomic risk factors.

4. Discussion 4.1. Family computing usage patterns The findings presented here confirm that for upper middle class families in the United States, computers have woven themselves into the fabric of daily family life. Even the youngest children observed in this study were using computers. The reported time spent computing increased with the age of the participants. 4.2. Computing equipment and locations Desktop usage was much more prevalent among children and mothers, whereas fathers tended to use laptops. This likely relates to the type of employment of the fathers, though the specific reasons were not explored. Not surprisingly, parents tended to use newer equipment while children used older equipment, often handed down from the parents. Children’s computers were often located in bedrooms or in public spaces whereas half of the adult computers were located in traditional dens or offices. Some parents stated that they preferred to have children’s computers in public spaces so that computer use could be monitored more easily. Mothers were more likely than fathers to share computers with children, again likely related to type of employment of the fathers. 4.3. Computing activities for children Most children reported computing activities involving game playing and listening to music – entertainment activities. Internet searches and checking school

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grades were also common activities. Note that these activities were explored independent of the findings in Table 1, which refer to the number of children engaging in usage patterns but do not reflect the time spent using any specific applications. Exploring the amount of time spent per application would be an interesting question to examine in a future study. 4.4. Postures and environment Working spaces were not often set to properly accommodate children while using computers. This resulted in a wide variety of non-neutral postures including: feet not flat on the floor, slumping/leaning, and poor wrist posture. Similar findings have been found in schools, where as few as 5% of computer stations for children were found to fit them well [10]. In the present study, chair and work surface mismatches were the most commonly observed problems. For younger (smaller) children, these problems were more frequent, understandable findings given that, as bodies grow, they become anthropometrically closer to the adult bodies for which most computer equipment is designed. Based on these findings, it seems clear that there is great potential to improve computing stations and their fit with children. The availability of right-sized equipment and the education to seek it out and use it properly seem to be necessary first steps in addressing this mismatch. 4.5. Experience of discomfort and typing skill measures Incidence of self-reported pain associated with computer use was 19% lower in this study than in a previous study (closer to 50%) [6]. This difference could be accounted for by different reporting criteria and sample differences (especially age differences). Since this sample only included 26 children, five of whom reported pain, it is difficult to generalize findings from so few. The type of reported pain varied widely including arm and finger pain from using input devices, eye strain from staring at the screen, and lower extremity pain from poor leg positioning (e.g. sitting on legs to reach keyboard). Incidence of some pain is not surprising given the high frequency of non-neutral postures that were observed. Typing speed and accuracy were found to increase with age, as would be expected. This corresponds with better body control of older children, more experience with computers, and greater likelihood of typing train-

ing. Efficient touch-typing skills appeared to emerge in the early teen years. While this can be seen both in observed skill during typing and in the typing speed and accuracy tests, it should be noted that the older teens in the sample were exceptional typists. They averaged a typing speed of 57 WPM, whereas average typing speed among adults has been measured to be around 40 WPM [8]. It is very interesting that the number of observed workstation issues was inversely related to typing speed; a previous study found a preventive association of touch-typing skill and pain [6]. These results definitely warrant further investigation. It is unclear if the workstations fit their users better among touch typists due to more ergonomics training among this group, more attention to the workstation to improve typing performance, other causes, or chance. Although age was related to typing skill, age alone does not account for the differences in observed workstation fit. 4.6. Parental concerns With children demonstrating heavy computer use, often without breaks, one might expect parents to be concerned about the risk of RSI for their children. However, this appears not to be the case. After observing children using devices that fit poorly, rarely taking breaks or making adjustments when using shared equipment, and often assuming awkward postures using both laptop and desktop models, it was somewhat surprising how few parents (23% of those questioned) recognized these behaviors as potential risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries. In fact, only four potential computer use concerns from our list of 26 ranked lower than concerns about RSIs: toxic emissions, seizures, attention deficit, and exposure to racism. The main concerns that parents expressed were access to pornography, interaction with strangers, computer addiction, commercial exploitation, and visual strain. The most intense concerns seemed to be about exposure to pornography and possible exploitation by strangers (especially on MySpace.com). One possible explanation for low parental concern about RSI risk is general lack of awareness of ergonomic concepts – both in terms of risk factors and the severity of RSI. Parents may be unaware of how their children actually use their computers. Or, parents may not realize that poor postures are so common because children were often unsupervised in their own bedrooms while using computers. If children are not complaining, it is unlikely that parents will feel any need to improve the

L. Kimmerly and D. Odell / Children and computer use in the home: Workstations, behaviors and parental attitudes

environment. This indicates that greater education to the risks of RSI of both parents and children may be helpful. In contrast to the low concerns for RSI, parents were quite concerned about visual strain while children work at the computer; although this concern did not translate into action in terms of workstation modification to reduce visual strain. This difference is quite interesting and worth future investigation. Perhaps the more acute and prevalent nature of eye strain, the value of eyesight, or the clearer association with ‘screen time’ relate to this increased concern. 4.7. Limitations, implications and future work The main limitations of this study were the relatively small sample size, the limited time available to spend at each home, and the unavailability of several fathers for interview. As a result, the findings are presented as directional only, and larger studies will be needed to verify quantitative significance for many of the findings. However, this study offers many novel findings obtained through innovative methods. These include photo documentation of the diverse in-home computing environments and first-hand observation of the behaviors of young users. This study also quantifies behaviors and perceptions through the use of checklists. Finally, the inclusion of a typing test across age ranges of children gives interesting insight into the acquisition of computer skills. Despite study shortcomings, the physical evidence gathered here supports the findings of previous researchers [1,3,6,14] and points to the need for reducing risk through preventive means such as providing information and teaching appropriate modification skills. Matching keyboard and mouse size with user stature, adjusting video displays, and improving users’ ability to type properly have all been suggested as ways to improve computing conditions for children [1,6,14]. Guidelines proposed [12,13] to “ensure positive outcomes from child-computer interactions” can help facilitate the use of ergonomics study to impact change with evidence-based understanding and education. Future research should focus on addressing the limitation of this study by verifying the findings with a larger, more diverse sample. If verified, the association between typing skill and better ergonomic setup should be explored more deeply. Further, it would be interesting to look at how school learning affects home computer usage for children. Finally, the impact of interventions designed to increase child and parental awareness of ergonomic issues should be assessed using a pre/post observational model with control.

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5. Conclusions Children in upper middle class neighborhoods start using home computers at a young age and spend a fair amount of time using computers while concurrently engaged in entertainment and communication activities. As children age, they tend to spend more time with computers and their typing skills improve. Computers are used in a broad range of spaces within households, but few of these environments are well-suited to the anthropometry of children. Most notably lacking is proper seating (leaving legs dangling or folded under children). Also lacking are proper workstation height and proper monitor positioning. Better typing skill appears to be correlated with a more appropriate workstation setup. Parents tended to have positive attitudes toward computing, citing access to information and benefits to schoolwork. The top computing issues raised by parents were: access to pornography, interaction with strangers, computer addiction, commercial exploitation, and visual strain. Concerns about the risks of musculoskeletal injuries were very low on the list of concerns and parents seemed unaware that certain computing behaviors such as typing and mousing might impact the health of their children. This indicates that more education about ergonomic risk factors and typing skill training could be beneficial in this population. References [1]

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[6]

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