Chapter 24 Outlines

Huy Lam World Studies 3rd Period November 8th, 2007 Chapter #24, pages 663-674

I.The

Scientific Revolution 1.Scientific

Revolution – the process in which new views and understanding of the universe and of scientific knowledge were recognized. 2.New

scientific discoveries challenged religion.

3.Rationality

– the state of having a reason.

II.Nicolaus Copernicus 1.Nicolaus

Copernicus – Polish astronomer.

a)1543 – Published ‘On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres’, a book that progressed the understanding of the universe. 2.Ptolemy

a)Wrote ‘Almagest’. b)His system assumed Earth as the center of the universe, the layer past that contained the moon, another sun, and the layer beyond that contained the realms of God and the angels. This system was used before Nicolaus’ was introduced. c)There were many errors in his system, mainly involving movement of the universe. 3.Nicolaus

challenged Ptolemy by proposing the idea that the Earth moved around the sun, explaining or clearing up the errors of the Ptolemaic system. III.Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler 1.Tycho

Brahe

a)Believed that the sun and moon revolves around the Earth and that other planets revolve around the sun. b)Constructed the most accurate tables of observations for centuries. 2.Johannes

Kepler – a German astronomer.

a)Took possession of the tables after Tycho’s death. b)Influenced by Renaissance Neoplatonist who honored the sun. c)Published ‘On the Motion of Mars’. IV.Galileo Galilei 1.Galileo

Galilei – an Italian scientist.

a)First used a telescope to look at the skies. Challenged many religious beliefs. b)Published Dialogues on the Two Chief Systems of the World’. c)Believed that the smallest atom behaved with the same mathematical precision as the largest heavenly sphere. V.Francis Bacon 1.Francis

Bacon – regarded as the father of empiricism and of experimentation in science. a)Published ‘The Advancement of Learning’, the ‘Novum Organum’, and the ‘New Atlantis’. b)Believed that most truths were already discovered, that they only required explanation. c)Believed that people dwelled too much on the past and wouldn’t accept change. d)Said people needed to change and discover new things. VI.Isaac Newton 1.Isaac

Newton a)Published ‘The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy’ (Latin title = ‘Principia Mathematica’). b)Believed that everything in the universe affected each other through gravity.

2.By

now, the Scientific Revolution showed people law and regularity in the world. Physic was used to explain things and put an end to many superstitions. VII.John Locke

1.John

Locke a)Three most famous works – ‘Essay Concerning Human Understanding’, ‘Two Treaties of Government’, and ‘Letter Concerning Toleration’. (1)In ‘Essay Concerning Human Understanding’, Locke says that at birth, the mind is blank. From there, any experiences will provoke knowledge. He also says that humans can alter their own destiny, and that it doesn’t take God to plan out the future for one’s life.

(2)In ‘Two Treaties of Government’, Locke says rulers are not absolute in their powers. He says that human beings are the images and properties of God, so no one should harm or disturb another’s property. Believes that if a monarch violated the trust given to him, he could be overthrown. (3)In ‘Letter on Toleration’, Locke says that each person was responsible for his own religious salvation.

II.The

Enlightenment 1.Philosophes

– the early exponents of the Enlightenment.

a)Honored, they convinced Europeans that change was a good idea. II.Voltaire 1.Francois

Mario Arouet (Voltaire) – the earliest and most influential philosophe. a)Arrested and briefly imprisoned in French for offending the authorities with his writings. b)Published ‘Letters on the English’ and ‘Elements of the Philosophy of Newton’. c)Most famous work – ‘Candide’. In this work, he attacked war, religious persecution, and what he regarded as unwarranted optimism about the human condition. d)Believed the human race should improve. e)Said the phrase ‘crush the infamous thing’. III.The Encyclopedia 1.Encyclopedia

– one of the greatest monuments of the Enlightenment.

a)Represented a collective plea for freedom of expression. Also, it provided important information on manufacturing, canal building, ship construction, and improved agriculture. 2.Denis

Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert – helped produce the first volumes of the Encyclopedia. 3.Encyclopedists III.The

– those associated with the Enclyclopedia.

Enlightenment and Religion 1.The

philosophes were against the church. a)The two had different ideas about human sins.

II.Deism 1.Deism

– a movement of people who believed that God must be rational. Cling to anything describing a rational order.

2.‘Christianity

Not Mysterious’ – written by John Toland. Indicates the general tenor of the religious outlook of Deism. III.Toleration 1.Jean

Calas – executed Huguenot who murdered his son to prevent him from converting to Roman Catholicism. 2.Treatise

on Tolerance – published by Voltaire.

3.Gotthold

Lessing – wrote ‘Nathan the Wise’ as a plea for toleration not only of different Christian sects but also of religious faiths other than Christianity.

IV.The

Enlightenment and Society I.Adam Smith 1.Adam

Smith – wrote ‘An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’. Wants capitalism (supporting personal economical growth). a)This book was the most important Enlightenment exposition of economics. b)Challenged the concept of scarce goods and resources that lay behind mercantilism and the policies of the guilds. 2.Wanted

the mercantile system of England to be abolished.

3.Smith

is regarded as the founder of ‘laissez-faire’, a phrase which means ‘let-do’, referring to how the government should only play a limited role in commerce. 4.‘The

Wealth of Nations’ – Smith’s book, which was complex and addressed the issue of the government and their role on commerce. II.Montesquieu and the Spirit of the Laws 1.Baron

de Montesquieu (Charles Louis de Secondat – wrote ‘The Spirit of the Laws’.

a)‘The Spirit of the Laws’ – exhibits the internal tensions of the Enlightenment.

2.Parlements

– judicial courts dominated by aristocrats like himself.

3.One

of his most influential ideas was division of power, where the government was split into three branches, with two always checking and balancing the power of the other. III.Rousseau 1.Jean-Jacques

Rousseau – an isolated genius who was never comfortable with other philosophes. a)‘Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences’ – Rousseau’s book in which he said that civilization and enlightenment had corrupted human nature. b)‘Discourse on the Origin of Inequality’ – Rousseau’s book in which he blamed much of the evil in the world on misdistribution of property. c)‘The Social Contract’ – an abstract book by Rousseau which is compared to Montesquieu’s ‘The Spirit of the Laws’. Outlines the political structure that he believed would overcome the evils of contemporary politics and society. d)Wanted an environment where people could act morally. e)Suggested a civic religion based on deism. IV.Women in the Thought and Practice of the Enlightenment 1.Marie-Thérèse

Geoffrin, Julie de Lespinasse, and Claudine de Tenein – gave the philosophes access to useful social and political contacts and a receptive environment for their ideas. 2.Marquise

de Pompadour – the mistress of Louis XV.

a)Played a key role in overcoming the circulation of works attacking the philosophes. b)Helped block the circulation of works attacking the philosophes. 3.Women

at this time still didn’t have that wide of a range of power in the

society. 4.Montesquieu

believed that women shouldn’t be trampled over, but he also didn’t state that they deserved as much power as men 5.Diderot

and d’Alembert believed that women were inferior.

6.Rosseau

wrote ‘Émile’, in which he declared that women should be educated for a position subordinate to men. 7.Mary Wollstonecrafe

wrote ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman’, in which she fought against Rousseau by saying that women should be allowed the rights of men. 8.Salon

– a meeting of intellectual discussion. Usually upper-class women would open their doors for such events. V.Enlightened Absolutism

a)Goals: military dominance, strengthening of absolute control, giving people some of what they want in exchange for praise, obedience, and volunteer work.

b)Catherine II read the works of the philosophes and used their writings to base her ruling off of.

c)The search for new revenues and for more political support for their rule led monarchs to make “enlightened” reforms. II.Joseph II of Austria 1.Joseph

II of Austria – the son of Maria Theresa.

a)Described as “an imperial puritan and a good deal of a prig.” b)October 1781 – Joseph extended freedom of worship to Lutherans, Calvinists, and the Greek Orthodox. c)1781-1789 – Joseph relieved the Jews of certain taxes and signs of personal degradation and gave them the right of private worship. d)Dissolved the traditional Roman Catholic seminaries, which he believed taught priests too great a loyalty to the papacy and too little concern for their future parishioners. (1)He had put eight general seminaries that emphasized parish duties.

e)Joseph gave peasants more rights such as more control over their marriage. Also, he made it easier for them to receive land by convincing landlords to change the lease, 2.Josephinism

– the ecclesiastical policies of Joseph II.

III.Catherine the Great of Russia 1.Catherine

II – born a German princess.

a)Became ruler when she approved of the murder of Peter III, her husband. b)‘Instructions’ – written by Catherine. Contains ideas drawn from the political writings of the philosophes.

c)Charter of the Nobility – issued by Catherine in 1785. Guaranteed many noble rights and privileges. 2.Treaty

of Kuchuk-Kainardji – gave Russia a direct outlet on the Black Sea, free navigation rights in its waters, and free access through the Bosphorus. IV.The Partition of Poland 1.First

Partition of Poland – an agreement between Frederick the Great and Russia and Austria.

a)In it, the three agreed that they would abandon the Danubian provinces in return for a large chunk of Polish territory with almost 2 million inhabitants. 2.Two

more partitions, one in 1793 and one in 1795. They remove Poland from the map of Europe until 1919. VI.In

World Perspective I.The Enlightenment Heritage 1.Today,

many traces of the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment still

remain. 2.The

philosophes influenced the present by presenting social and political reforms.