Chapter-1-3rd-thesisfinal2.docx

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

One of the fields of civil engineering is environmental engineering as indicated by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The traditional concerns of the sanitary engineer have expanded to encompass the environmental effects of all kinds of engineering activities, including the provision of an ample and safe water supply and the disposal of waste. Highways, coastal installations, flood control systems, and other projects must undergo careful environmental scrutiny. With all that work, civil engineers must work closely with professionals in biology, chemistry, geology, and other disciples.

With respect to environmental effects of engineering activities, one of the major and obvious sources of water pollution is municipal sewage – the wastewaters of communities. Entering sewers in dissolved form are soaps, synthetic detergents, bleaches, and other chemicals used by households. From homes also come various disposable paper products, including toilet tissue and babies’ diapers. Homes with garbage disposal units in their kitchen sinks add ground-up vegetable and animal matter to the sewage. Lastly, from the streets comes the water that runs off from rainstorms.

Common disposal points of sewage and industrial waste are rivers, creeks, and seas. Sewage and wastewater are disposed off to these bodies of

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water in many parts of the world. Doing so can lead to serious pollution of the receiving water. This is common in developing countries and may still occur in some developed countries, where septic tank systems are too expensive.

When toxic substances enter a body of water, they will be dissolved, become suspended in water or get deposited on the water bed. The resulting water pollution causes the quality of the water to deteriorate and affects aquatic ecosystems.

In the Philippines, the rapid increase in population, urbanization and industrialization reduce the quality of water bodies according to Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA). The discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater and agriculture runoff has caused extensive pollution of the coastal water bodies. This effluent is in the form of raw sewage, detergents, fertilizers, heavy metals, chemical products, oil and solid waste.

In the City of Tagbilaran, liquid waste is also a problem. According to Bohol Analysis Environment, on December 6, 2008 by M. Caňares, the construction company hired to rehabilitate the road and drainage system discovered that there were various illegal tapping of the drainage system; illegal, because untreated water coming from the septic tanks of several establishments were channeled to the public drainage system which should have been used only for grey water.

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The bulk of waste as well as grey water is enormous that it caused flooding in some parts of the city during heavy rain. The water cannot just be disposed to the sea as these were not yet treated. A water treatment facility is not available and thus the big problem. The city has not yet penalized those with illegal connections and the flooding continued for a while until the city government, without the necessary clearance from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), authorized the opening of the drainage water outfall in 9 November 2008, solving the flooding problem but jeopardizing the marine resources and the livelihood of several people. But eventually the DENR agreed to flush the water to the sea, given the appropriate clearance from the agency. It should be noted that Tagbilaran City’s main business establishments are tourism and tourism-support service providers. Unmanaged wastewater will risk tourism-related activities, especially to that one of Bohol’s competitive advantages is its white beaches. Several hotels and restaurants are located along the coastline of Tagbilaran. Also, 4% of the population relies on fishing for livelihood. Polluting the seas will have adverse effects on marine resources, and consequently on people’s livelihoods (Boholanalysis.com). With that, the researchers with the guidance from their adviser decided to study the coastal water condition at one of the disposal points in Tagbilaran City which is the San Jose outfall.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

The disposal of wastewater has become a serious problem in Tagbilaran City. These wastes are disgusting to see, causes foul odor and may attract vermin. Due to the unavailability of a water treatment facility, these wastes are directly discharged into the sea without any treatment. With the clearance authorized by the DENR, the discharging of wastes continued even knowing the risk that it would affect the quality of our coastal waters and the livelihood of several citizens. Knowing these, the researchers decided to determine the effects of discharging untreated municipal sewage to the water quality at the disposal point.

This study evaluated the coastal water quality of one specific disposal point of Tagbilaran City which is the San Jose outfall with reference to water quality standards as stipulated in DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08. By utilizing the Canadian Water Quality Index (WQI) model, this study aimed to come up with description of the coastal water with its beneficial usage. The WQI developed by Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) in 2001 will provide a convenient means of summarizing complex water quality data; offering a general and readily understood description of water. This study also aimed to determine the possible impacts of the coastal water condition to human health, marine life and to the environment.

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1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study were:

1. To assess the quality of seawater at the sewage disposal point in Tagbilaran City in terms of physical properties namely: 1.1 color; 1.2 pH (Range); and 1.3 total suspended solids.

2. To assess the quality of seawater at the sewage disposal point in Tagbilaran City in terms of chemical properties namely: 2.1 dissolved oxygen; 2.2 nitrate content; and 2.3 phosphate content.

3. To assess the quality of seawater at the sewage disposal point in Tagbilaran City in terms of microbiological properties namely: 3.1 fecal coliform.

4. To provide a water quality index that will summarize the complex water quality data.

5. To determine the possible impacts of the coastal water condition to human health, marine life and to the environment.

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1.4 Significance of the Study

Water quality is of economic, environmental and social importance. Water quality can be defined in terms of a water body’s suitability for various uses such as water supply source, swimming and protection of aquatic life. It is affected by water abstractions, by pollution loads from human activities. If pressure from human activities becomes so intense that water quality is impaired to the point that drinking water requires even more advanced and costly treatment or that aquatic plant and animal species in rivers, lakes and seas are greatly reduced, then the sustainability of the water resource use is in question.

The marine environment is an important resource not only in terms of the biodiversity it supports but also as a resource for tourism, industry, freshwater production and recreation. Land based developments and activities, (such as sewage disposal, desalination plants, landfills, industry, tourism infrastructure and power stations) generate significant impact on the sea. Moreover, dealing with water pollution is something that everyone (including governments and local councils) needs to get involved with.

With this research, the students will analyze the status of seawater at the sewage disposal point. Through this, local residents will know the true condition of their surroundings as these might be harmful for their health. The realization of this investigation will pave the way for the local government to think appropriate plans for the development and preservation of bodies of water to maximize its utilization for the community. This can also serve as basis for the local

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government on stopping the direct disposal of sewage on the sea without proper treatment.

Lastly, this study will serve as eye-opener for the citizens of Bohol and especially to the local government by showing the seawater condition at the drainage outfall.

1.5 Scope and Limitations

The research scope and limitations are enumerated as follows:

1. The main focus of this study was the seawater status at the drainage outfall located at the coastal area near Graham Avenue.

2. Water samples were gathered and delivered immediately to a DENR recognized environmental laboratory located in Nasipit, Talamban, Cebu City for analysis and interpretation.

3. Water samples were collected using two different kinds of container as instructed by the afore mentioned water laboratory. Water containers differ on the parameters to be analyzed; sterilized glass bottles were used for coliform analysis; 1-gallon plastic bottles were used for other analyses.

4. This was not a long term study. There were only two sampling periods. The research only gathered water samples once a month.

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5. The study was only limited on analyzing the seawater condition at the disposal point. It did not analyze the physical, chemical and microbiological properties of the waste water coming directly from the drainage system. 6. The researchers only collected samples in one weather condition. This study only gathered samples during a sunny day.

7. All other parameters not stated in the objectives were not examined.

8. Because the body of water to be tested is unclassified by the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB), the researchers classified it based on beneficial use as determined by the EMB.

1.6 Theoretical Background of the Study

1.6.1 Water Quality

There are two main ways of measuring the quality of water. One is to take samples of the water and measure the concentrations of different chemicals that it contains. If the chemicals are dangerous or the concentrations are too great, we can regard the water as polluted. Measurements like these are known as chemical indicators of water quality. Another way to measure water quality involves examining the fish, insects, and other invertebrates that the water will support. If many different types of creatures can live in a river, the quality is likely to be very good; if the river supports no fish life at all, the quality is obviously much poorer. Measurements like these are called biological indicators of water quality (Woodford, 2016).

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1.6.2 Water Quality Index

To assess whether the water body is fit for various human activities and could support aquatic species and ecosystem processes, various physical, chemical and microbiological parameters are determined through laboratory analyses. With hundreds of parameters available to assess the water quality, the challenge remains on providing a single statement that would sum up several water quality parameters into one holistic description. Like any other environmental monitoring program, there is a problem on the reporting of water quality monitoring results to both managers and the general public because of the complexity associated with analyzing a large number of measured variables. (Martinico-Perez et al., 2014)

In response to this, numerous water quality indices have been formulated all over the world. These indices are based on the comparison of the water quality parameters to the standards and give a single value for the water quality of a certain source (Bharti and Katyal, 2011). The scatterscore index was used to assess changes in water quality of mining sites in USA (Kim and Cardone, 2005); index of river water quality was developed and used in Taiwan (Liou et al., 2004); overall index of pollution was used in India (Sargaonkr and Deshpande, 2003); and Chemical Water Quality Index used in USA (Tsegaye et al., 2006) are some of the numerous attempts to simplify complex water quality data and monitoring.

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The Water Quality Index (WQI) developed by Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) in 2001 assesses the quality of water against the water quality standard set forth by the government agency or site specific background concentration (CCME, 2001). It is among the well-accepted and widely applicable model for evaluating the water quality index (Sharma and Kansal, 2011; Damo and Icka, 2013). Because of its versatility, this method was utilized by UNEP GEMS/Water programme as the model that can be followed in developing a global water quality index (UNEP, 2007).

While some countries and regions have developed and are using water quality indices that assess water quality either on a national or global level, these rely mostly on normalizing or standardizing data parameter according to expected concentrations (Carr and Rickwood, 2008). The CCME WQI, on the other hand, provides a mathematical framework for assessing ambient water quality conditions relative to water quality standards, thus, reflects the overall and current condition of the water bodies. There is no formulated and developed guidelines on water quality indices in the Philippines, although there are water quality standards used as basis for acceptable values of physico-chemical and microbiological parameters. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources issued the Administrative Order No. 2016-08 stipulating the water quality criteria or standards based on the beneficial usage of the body of water or classification of freshwaters and marine waters, providing basis to determine the suitability of water bodies for specific use.

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1.6.3 Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 Republic Act No. 9275 also known as the “Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004” declares that the Act shall apply to water quality management in all water bodies: Provided, that it shall primarily apply to the abatement and control of pollution from land based sources: Provided, further, that the water quality standards and regulations and the civil liability and penal provisions under this Act shall be enforced irrespective of sources of pollution.

In addition, the Act mentioned on the Declaration of Policy at section 2 that: The State shall pursue a policy of economic growth in a manner consistent with the protection, preservation and revival of the quality of our fresh, brackish and marine waters. To achieve this end, the framework for sustainable development shall be pursued. As such, it shall be the policy of the State: a) To streamline processes and procedures in the prevention, control and abatement of pollution of the country’s water resources; b) To promote environmental strategies, use of appropriate economic instruments and of control mechanisms for the protection of water resources; c) To formulate a holistic national program of water quality management that recognizes that water quality management issues cannot be separated from concerns about water sources and ecological protection, water supply, public health and quality of life; d) To provide for a comprehensive management program for water pollution focusing on pollution prevention; e) To promote public information and education and to encourage the participation of an informed and active public in water quality management and monitoring;

This Act shall be the basis of this study in assessing the coastal water near the drainage disposal points of Tagbilaran City to promote pollution

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awareness. This policy tells that it is important to protect, preserve and lessen the pollution of the country’s water resources.

“There are two main ways of

Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004

measuring the quality of water.”

“…the Act shall apply to water

Water Quality

(Woodford, 2016)

quality management in all water bodies…”

Water Quality Index

DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08, Section 5.0 – Classification of Water Bodies

“With hundreds of parameters available to assess the water

“For the purpose of maintaining

quality…”

water quality …”

(Martinico-Perez et al., 2014) Evaluation of Coastal Water Quality at San Jose Drainage Outfall in Tagbilaran City, Bohol Using Physico-Chemical Parameters and Water Quality Index

  

Water properties in terms of physical, chemical and microbiological. Water quality index that will summarize the complex water quality data. Possible impacts of the coastal water condition to human health, marine life and to the environment.

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Recommendation s Figure 1. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

Drainage System. It refers to the system of pipes in Tagbilaran City that conveys rainwater or other liquid waste, to a legal point of disposal.

Outfalls. It is also known as disposal points. It refers to the coastal waters of Tagbilaran City where all the wastes from drainages are being disposed.

Sewage. It refers to liquid and semisolid wastes from dwellings and offices, industrial wastes and surface and storm waters.

Water Body. It is both natural and man-made bodies of fresh, brackish, and saline water. Water bodies do not refer to those constructed, developed and used purposely as water treatment facilities or water storage for recycling and reuse, which are integral to process industry or manufacturing.

Water pollution. It means any alternation of the physical, chemical or biological or radiological properties of a water body resulting in the impairment of its purity and qualify.

Waste Water. It refers to water coming from the drainage system

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

Over two thirds of Earth's surface is covered by water; less than a third is taken up by land. As Earth's population continues to grow, people are putting ever-increasing pressure on the planet's water resources. In a sense, the oceans, rivers, and other inland waters are being "squeezed" by human activities—not so they take up less room, but so their quality is reduced. Poorer water quality means water pollution.

Pollution is a human problem because it is a relatively recent development in the planet's history: before the 19th century Industrial Revolution, people lived more in harmony with their immediate environment. As industrialization has spread around the globe, so the problem of pollution has spread with it.

When Earth's population was much smaller, no one believed pollution would ever present a serious problem. It was once popularly believed that the oceans were far too big to pollute. Today, with around 7 billion people on the planet, it has become apparent that there are limits. Pollution is one of the signs that humans have exceeded those limits (C. Woodford, 2016).

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2.2 Water Pollution

Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases (Pink, 2006), and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily (West, 2006). An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day (CHNRI, 2010). About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted (Chinadaily.com.cn, 2005).

In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64 percent of assessed lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted (EPA, 2009). The head of China's national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin (Wachman, 2007).

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae

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blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water.

2.3 Sewage

Sewage is a water-carried waste, in solution or suspension that is intended to be removed from a community. Also known as domestic or municipal wastewater, it is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and its bacteriologic status (which organisms it contains and in what quantities). It consists mostly of greywater (from sinks, tubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers), blackwater (the water used to flush toilets, combined with the human waste that it flushes away); soaps and detergents; and toilet paper (less so in regions where bidets are widely used instead of paper). Whether it also contains surface runoff depends on the design of sewer system (Answers.com).

All sewage ends up back in the environment, by any of several routes. A basic distinction in its route is whether it undergoes sewage treatment to mitigate its effect on the environment before arriving there. Sewage usually travels from a building's plumbing either into a sewer, which will carry it elsewhere, or into an onsite sewage facility. Whether it is combined with surface runoff in the sewer depends on the sewer design. Before the 20th century, sewers are usually discharged into a body of water such as a stream, river, lake, bay, or ocean. There was no treatment, so the breakdown of the human waste was left to the ecosystem.

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Today, the goal is that sewers route their contents to a wastewater treatment plant rather than directly to a body of water. In many countries, this is the norm; in many developing countries, it may be a yet-unrealized goal. In general, with passing decades and centuries, humanity seeks to be smarter about the route of sewage on its way back to the environment, in order to reduce environmental degradation and achieve sustainability. Thus other goals of modern sewage routing include handling surface runoff separately from sewage, handling greywater separately from toilet waste, and coping better with abnormal events (such as peaks in use from internal displacement and peaks in storm water volumes from extreme weather).

Proper collection and safe, nuisance-free disposal of the liquid wastes of a community are legally recognized as a necessity in an urbanized, industrialized society (McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology). The reality is, however, that most wastewater produced globally remains untreated causing widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries: A global estimate by UNDP and UN-Habitat is that 90% of all wastewater generated is released into the environment untreated (Corcoran et al. 2010). In many developing countries the bulk of domestic and industrial wastewater is discharged without any treatment or after primary treatment only.

The term sewage is nowadays regarded as an older term and is being more and more replaced by "wastewater" (McGraw Hill, 2003). In general American English usage, the terms "sewage" and "sewerage" mean the same

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thing (Flexner, 1993). Both words are descended from Old French as sewer, derived from the Latin exaquare, "to drain out (water)". In American technical and professional English usage, "sewerage" refers to the infrastructure that conveys sewage (Oxforddictionaries.com).

2.4 Water Drainage Disposal There are a limited number of options available when trying to decide where and how to dispose of drainage water into the natural hydrological system. The common option is to return the water either to the land as part of the irrigation water supply, or to rivers and lakes, or to salt sinks, such as the ocean. The options available to any single project may be limited because of water quality concerns. Yet the problem of sewage disposal does not end there. When you flush the toilet, the waste has to go somewhere and, even after it leaves the sewage treatment works, there is still waste to dispose of. Sometimes sewage waste is pumped untreated into the sea. Until the early 1990s, around 5 million tons of sewage was dumped by barge from New York City each year.

According to 2002 figures from the UK government's Department for the Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs, the sewers of Britain collect around 11 billion liters of waste water every day, some of it still pumped untreated into the sea through long pipes. The New River that crosses the border from Mexico into California once carried with it 20–25 million gallons of raw sewage each day; a new waste water plant on the US-Mexico border, completed in 2007, substantially solved that problem.

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Unfortunately, even in some of the richest nations, the practice of dumping sewage into the sea continues. In early 2012, it was reported that the tiny island of Guernsey (between Britain and France) has decided to continue dumping 16,000 tons of raw sewage into the sea each day.

2.5 Point Sources of Pollution

Point sources of water pollution are defined as those that originate from a known point, such as a pipe from which a pollutant may enter a lake or stream.

Nearly every city, town, and waterside settlement discharges some type of pollution to surface waters. Human wastes that are collected in sewers and piped to municipal sewage treatment plants ultimately are discharged to surface waters as treated wastewater. Older systems with combined sewer and storm water systems discharge untreated sewage to rivers or lakes during heavy rainfall that overwhelms the drainage system. But in general, treatment processes remove solid material, many of the chemical pollutants, and then disinfect the treated sewage to kill disease-causing organisms before releasing the treated wastewater to the receiving water body (Arthur S. Brooks 2017).

According to Chris Woodford (2006) most water pollution doesn't begin in the water itself. Take the oceans: around 80 percent of ocean pollution enters our seas from the land. Virtually any human activity can have an effect on the quality of our water environment. When farmers fertilize the fields, the chemicals they use are gradually washed by rain into the groundwater or surface waters nearby.

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Sometimes the causes of water pollution are quite surprising. Chemicals released by smokestacks (chimneys) can enter the atmosphere and then fall back to earth as acid rain, entering seas, rivers, and lakes and causing water pollution.

2.6 Seawater Pollution Studies of the Pakistan Coast

A. Mashiatullah et al. (2000) used stable carbon isotope analysis of total dissolved inorganic carbon (TDIC) in water-samples was determined by gas source mass spectrometry and using routine sample-preparation methods. This has been used as a natural tracer of domestic and industrial pollution inventory in shallow seawater off the Pakistan Coast.

In general, this study concludes that stable carbon isotope contents of total dissolved inorganic carbon (TDIC) can be used as a potential indicator of pollution inputs from domestic and industrial sources, as well as carbon flow into the seawater from domestic and industrial sources as also from the mangrove ecosystems.

Hence, the practice of analyzing the seawater pollution level is not new.

2.7 The U-23 Multiparameter Water Quality Monitoring System

On April 21, 2000, Takeshi Kobayashi et al. used the U-23 to observe the state of Lake Biwa’s water quality at various depths in five locations. The U-23 is also the world’s first water quality instrument that is capable of simultaneously

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measuring three different ions. The user can select any three from these six constituents: nitrate, calcium, chloride, fluoride, potassium, and ammonia.

However, it is thought that if the dissolved oxygen concentration at the bottom of Lake Biwa becomes depleted, there will be a danger of the northern portion of the lake becoming eutrophied. A total of nine other parameters including pH and NO3 ion concentration were also measured at the same time. Use of the personal computer supplied with the U-2001 allowed the data to be analyzed and evaluated with relative ease.

Therefore, there are different methods and parameters used in the assessment of water bodies.

2.8 Predominant Pollution of Aquatic Resources

The monitoring results obtained by R.M.Bhardwaj (2005) indicate that organic pollution continues to be the predominant pollution of aquatic resources. The organic pollution measured in terms of bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD) & coliform count gives the indication of extent of water quality degradation in different parts of India.

The trends of % of observations obtained during 1994-2004 for last 11 years in different levels of pollution with respect to BOD & Total Coliform and Faecal Coliform are indicating different ranges of BOD and Coliform organisms. It is clear that there is an increasing trend in percentage of observations having

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BOD below 3 mg/l. This indicates that there is a gradual improvement in water quality with respect to organic pollution.

From this study, it can be seen that microbial properties are also important in the analysis of water samples.

2.9 Water Quality Criteria for Coastal and Marine waters in Philippines Based on the DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08, Section 5.0 – Classification of Water Bodies, for the purpose of maintaining water quality according to its intended beneficial usage, the following classification of water bodies shall be adopted (see Table 1).

Table 1. Water Body Classification and Usage of Marine Waters Classification

Intended Beneficial Use

Class SA

1. Protected Waters – waters designated as national or local marine parks, reserves, sanctuaries, and other area established by law, and/or declared as such by appropriate government agency, LGU, etc. 2. Fishery Water Class I – suitable for shellfish harvesting for direct human consumption 1. Fishery Waters Class II – waters suitable for commercial propagation of shellfish and intended as spawning areas for milkfish and similar species 2. Tourist Zones – for ecotourism and recreational activities 3. Recreational Water Class I – intended for primary contact recreation (bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.) 1. Fishery Water Class III – for the propagation and growth of fish and other aquatic resources and intended for commercial and sustenance fishing 2.Recreational Water Class II – for boating, fishing, or similar activities 3.Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish and wildlife sanctuaries Navigation waters

Class SB

Class SC

Class SD

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Note: For unclassified water bodies, classification shall be based on the beneficial use as determined by the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB).

From the table above, the water bodies near the two drainage outfalls located at Burgos and Graham will be classified as “Class SB” since some people uses these areas for swimming and bathing. Some citizens also use these water bodies for fishing. According to the DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08, Section 6.0 – Water Quality Guidelines, the rules and regulations established in this section are intended beneficial usage and to prevent and abate pollution and contamination to protect public health, aquatic resources, crops, and other living organisms. The following are the water quality guidelines for marine waters.

Table 2. Water Quality Guidelines for Primary Parameters Parameter BOD Chloride Color Dissolved Oxygen(a) (Minimum) Fecal Coliform Nitrate as NO3-N pH (Range) Phosphate Temperature(b) Total Suspended Solids

Unit mg/L mg/L TCU

Water Body Classification SA SB SC n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 5 50 75

SD n/a n/a 150

mg/L

6

6

5

2

MPN/100mL

<1.1

100

200

400

mg/L ˚C

10 7.0-8.5 0.1 26-30

10 7.0-8.5 0.5 26-30

10 6.5-8.5 0.5 25-31

15 6.0-9.0 5 25-32

mg/L

25

50

80

110

mg/L

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Notes: MPN/100Ml – Most Potable Number per 100 milliliter n/a – Not Applicable TCU – True Color Unit (a) Samples shall be taken from 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM (b) The natural background temperature as determined by EMB shall prevail if the temperature is lower or higher than the Water Quality Guidelines; provided that the maximum increase is only up to 10 percent and it will not cause any risk to human health and the environment.

Primary parameters are the required minimum water quality parameters to be monitored for each water body.

2.10 Physical Parameters

2.10.1 Color

Color in water may be caused by the presence of minerals such as iron and manganese or by substances of vegetable origin such as algae and weeds. Color tests indicate the efficacy of the water treatment system (Fisheries and Aquaculture Department).

The color and turbidity of water indicate the depth to which light is transmitted. This, in turn, controls the amount of primary productivity that is possible by controlling the rate of photosynthesis of the algae present. The

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visible color of water is the result of the different wavelengths not absorbed by the water itself or the result of dissolved and particulate substances present. It is possible to measure both true and apparent color in water. Minerals such as ferric hydroxide and organic substances such as humic acids give true colour to water. True color can be measured in a sample only after filtration or centrifugation. Apparent colour is caused by colored particulates and the refraction and reflection of light on suspended particulates. Polluted water may, therefore, have quite a strong apparent colour.

Different species of phyto- and zooplankton can also give water an apparent color. A dark or blue-green colour can be caused by blue-green algae, a yellow-brown colour by diatoms or dinoflagellates and reds and purples by the presence

of

zooplankton such as

Daphnia

sp. or copepods.

(World

Meteorological Organization, 2013)

2.10.2 pH

The pH is interdependent with other water quality parameters, such as carbon dioxide, alkalinity, and hardness. It can be toxic in itself at a certain level, and also known to influence the toxicity as well of hydrogen sulfide, cyanides, heavy metals, and ammonia (Klontz, 1993).

The pH can also affect fish health. For most freshwater species, a pH range between 6.5 - 9.0 is ideal, but most marine animals typically cannot tolerate as wide range pH as freshwater animals, thus the optimum pH is usually

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between pH 7.5 and 8.5 (Boyd, 1998). Below pH 6.5, some species experience slow growth (Lloyd, 1992). At lower pH, the organism’s ability to maintain its salt balance is affected (Lloyd, 1992) and reproduction ceases. At approximately pH 4.0 or below and pH 11 or above, most species die (Lawson, 1995).

2.10.3 Suspended Solids

Based on the American Public Health Association (1998) Suspended solid (SS) can come from silt, decaying plant and animals, industrial wastes, sewage, etc. They have particular relevance for marine organisms that are dependent on solar radiation and those whose life forms are sensitive to deposition.

High

concentrations have several negative effects, such as decreasing the amount of light that can penetrate the water, thereby slowing photosynthetic processes which in turn can lower the production of dissolved oxygen; high absorption of heat from sunlight, thus increasing the temperature which can result to lower oxygen level; low visibility which will affect the fish’ ability to hunt for food; clog fish’ gills; prevent development of egg and larva. It can also be an indicator of higher concentration of bacteria, nutrients and pollutants in the water.

Some of the factors that affect the concentration of SS are high flow rate, soil erosion, urban run-off, septic and wastewater effluents, decaying plants and animals and bottom-feeding fish.

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2.11 Chemical Parameters

2.11.1 Dissolved Oxygen

From (water quality criteria and standards for freshwater and marine aquaculture) in a water body, oxygen is available in a dissolved state. It is found in microscopic bubbles mixed in between water molecules. It can enter into the system through direct diffusion and as a by-product of photosynthesis. This means then that the level of dissolved oxygen in the water can be increased through mechanical aeration, e.g. paddle wheels, agitators, vertical sprayers, impellers, airlift pumps, air diffusers, liquid oxygen injection, etc., considerable wind and wave action, and presence of aquatic plants and algae. However, caution should be considered on the latter since it can also cause oxygen depletion when the plant population becomes too dense. On the other hand, it is removed through respiration and decomposition. Oxygen concentration maybe reported in terms milligram per liter (mg/L) or its equivalent, parts per million (ppm). Dissolved oxygen is considered as one of the most important aspect of aquaculture. It is needed by fish to respire and perform metabolic activities. Thus low levels of dissolved oxygen are often linked to fish kill incidents. On the other hand, optimum levels can result to good growth, thus result to high production yield. In general, a saturation level of at least 5 mg/L is required. Values lower than this can put undue stress on the fish, and levels reaching less than 2 mg/L may result to death (but 3 mg/L to some species).

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2.11.2 Nitrate

Nitrate is formed through nitrification process, i.e. oxidation of NO2 into NO3 by the action of aerobic bacteria. Nitrate not taken up directly by aquatic plants is denitrified in anaerobic sediments and microzones. In tropical systems, denitrification will be most intense in the following areas: (a) where detritus accumulates; (b) in water bodies subject to enhanced nutrient loading from pollution; (c) in water bodies with long residence times; and (d) in wetland ecosystems subject to periodic drying, where oxygen inputs during drying periods stimulate coupled mineralization-nitrification-denitrification within organically rich sediments (Furnas, 1992).

2.11.3 Phosphate

Phosphorus (P) is found in the form of inorganic and organic phosphates (PO4) in natural waters. Inorganic phosphates include orthophosphate and polyphosphate while organic forms are those organically-bound phosphates. Phosphorous is a limiting nutrient needed for the growth of all plants- aquatic plants and algae alike. However, excess concentrations especially in rivers and lakes can result to algal blooms. A lake with a concentration of below 0.010 mg/L is considered as oligotrophic, while concentrations between 0.010 and 0.020 mg/L are indicative of mesotrophy, and concentrations exceeding 0.020 mg/L are already considered eutrophic (Muller and Helsel, 1999). Phosphates are not toxic

29

to people or animals, unless they are present in very high levels. Digestive problems could occur from extremely high levels of phosphates.

2.12 Microbiological Parameters

2.12.1 Fecal Coliform

Coliform bacteria consist of several genera belonging to Family Enterobacteriaceae. Fecal coliform which belongs to this group is found mostly in feces and intestinal tracts of humans and other warm blooded animals. It is not pathogenic per se, however, it is a good indicator of the presence of pathogenic bacteria. High levels of fecal coliform in the water may cause typhoid fever, hepatitis, gastroenteritis, dysentery and eat infection.

Some factors which may affect the concentration of these bacteria are the presence of wastewater and septic system, animal wastes, run-off, high temperature and nutrient-rich water.

Among the countries, only Malaysia and the Philippines have set a standard exclusively for the presence of fecal coliform, while the rest of the countries set the standard for total coliform. Among these countries, Kenya has the most stringent requirement, i.e. 30 counts per 100 ml for freshwater and marine, followed by the Philippines and Hongkong. The Philippines has a lower required level in the marine waters than in freshwater.

30

2.13 CCME Water Quality Index A water quality index provides a convenient means of summarizing complex water quality data and facilitating its communication to a general audience. The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (1.0) is based on a formula developed by the British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks and modified by Alberta Environment. The Index incorporates three elements: scope - the number of variables not meeting water quality objectives; frequency - the number of times these objectives are not met; and amplitude - the amount by which the objectives are not met. The index produces a number between 0 (worst water quality) and 100 (best water quality). These numbers are divided into 5 descriptive categories to simplify presentation. (CCME, 2001)

The calculated WQI are then compared to the water quality rank that provides a convenient description of summarizing complex water quality data. Table 3 shows the general description based on the calculated water quality.

31

Table 3. General Description of the Calculated Water Quality Rank Adapted from the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (2001) Rank

WQI Range 95–100

Excellent 80–94 Good 65–79 Fair 45–64 Marginal Poor

0–44

Ecological Condition

Water quality is protected with a virtual absence of threat or impairment; conditions very close to natural or pristine levels. Water quality is protected with only a minor degree of threat or impairment; conditions rarely depart from natural or desirable levels. Water quality is usually protected but occasionally threatened or impaired; conditions sometimes depart from natural or desirable levels. Water quality is frequently threatened or impaired; conditions often depart from natural or desirable levels. Water quality is almost always threatened or impaired; conditions usually depart from natural or desirable levels.

2.14 Evaluation of Water Quality of Major Rivers in Palawan, Philippines using Physico-Chemical Parameters and Water Quality Index

From the study of M. Martinico-Perez et al. (2014), water quality of major rivers in the province Palawan was characterized using the water quality index (WQI) developed by Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). WQI was calculated for thirty-six (36) river monitoring stations based on physicochemical and microbiological parameters vis-à-vis freshwater quality standards stipulated in the DENR Administrative Order 34, series of 1990. Sample collections were done twice a year. Results show that all river monitoring stations have description of good to excellent water quality if utilized for agriculture, irrigation, and other purposes (Class D). Only five (5) river monitoring stations

32

have good to excellent rating as sources of drinking water after a complete treatment (Class A). It was concluded that The water quality index was potentially useful as a decision tool in environmental planning and decision-making activities related to water resource protection, improvement and utilization towards a sustainable water resource management in the province of Palawan.

Therefore, it is applicable to use the water quality index created by Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) to summarize the complex water quality data in the Philippines. The WQI is a useful tool that offers a general and readily understood description of water to a general audience. 2.15 Description of the Study Area Tagbilaran is the capital and a component city of the island province of Bohol. The coastline of the city is irregular with a total length of about 13 kilometers. It embraces 8 barangays, stretching from Barangay Bool in the South to Barangay Manga in the North. The other coastal barangays are: Mansasa, Poblacion I, Poblacion 3, Cogon, Booy, Taloto and Ubujan. Beaches are predominantly rocky or stony and characteristically narrow and rise abruptly into rocky cliffs (Tagbilaran Environmental Profile 2008).

It has a port, numerous malls, hospitals, and squatters along the shore on land and coral reefs, mangroves and sand beaches in coastal waters. According the city engineer’s office of Tagbilaran there are two disposal points, located at the coastal areas near V.P. Inting Avenue Corner E. Butalid Street and at Graham Avenue.

33

2.16 Condition of Tagbilaran City Coastal Waters

According to Tagbilaran Environmental Profile 2008, the sea water of Tagbilaran has not yet reached the level of critical stage. However, the catch of the traditional fisheries along Tagbilaran Bay has been declining. Likewise pollution and habitat destruction are rapidly taking place. The storm water that brings commercial and domestic wastes, effluents and sewage from unsanitary toilets to drain to the sea is posing constraints for future safety.

From wordpress.com in 2008, water samples taken from the drainage show the pollution level during rainy days at 10 parts per million (PPM) which is below the environmentally acceptable standard of 50 parts per million (PPM). However, when it is not raining, the laboratory results show that concentration of pollutants in the drainage is 84 PPM. This concentration of pollutants is present on the wastewaters which are disposed directly to the sea.

Furthermore,

according

to

tarsiernewscity.blogspot.com(2008),

the

Provincial Health Officer Reymoses Cabagnot and Bohol Environment Management Office (BEMO) head Renato Villaber presented the governor of Bohol with results of separate water quality tests made on samples from the outfall before the water reached the seawater as instructed by the University of San Carlos (USC) – Water Laboratory.

34

The USC result using the membrane filtration method indicated “too numerous to count” total coliforms, these being greater than 2,000 colonies per 100 ml.

The Provincial Health Office (PHO) also maintains a water laboratory to regularly test samples from different artesian wells, waterworks systems, other potable water sources, bottled water manufacturers and even beach areas to monitor coliform and fecal coliform content, among others.

Its tests on samples from the outfall showed 2,400 colonies per 100 ml total coliform and 2,100 colonies per 100 ml of fecal coliform. The results of both the fecal and total coliform counts are way above acceptable standards and will definitely pose danger to the health and safety of constituents.

Moreover, Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Officer (PENRO) Nestor Canda said that for toxic and other deleterious substances, the result for Chromium is 0.015 mg Cr/L as compared to the standard under Class SB bodies of water which is 0.10 for old and existing institutions (OEI) per Department Administrative Order (DAO) No. 35, series of 1990.

This is detrimental to the fishery resources in the area and would ultimately affect human health. The likely generators of these pollutants are the small scale electroplating shops within the city, Canda had explained.

35

Bohol Gov. Erico Aumentado expressed this “very serious concern” of the provincial government on the opening of the San Jose drainage outfall into the Tagbilaran and Maribojoc Bay in a letter to Environment Secretary Jose Atienza Jr. dated November 24.

Meanwhile, just to stop the flooding along CPC North Avenue, Atienza had ordered for the outfall to be opened during downpours but otherwise closed while the illegal sewer taps have not yet been completely disconnected.

Some responded to the notices and voluntarily disconnected their taps. Before DENR could completely validate the compliance, however, Lim had the outfall opened.

Until now, the drainage is flowing with the aforecited pollutants and contaminants since the gate thereto was destroyed and could not be located anymore according to Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Officer (PENRO) Nestor Canda.

If allowed to continue, the situation will undoubtedly pollute Tagbilaran Bay and the beach lines of Panglao Island facing Tagbilaran – and the Maribojoc Bay, the resorts along Tagbilaran’s shorelines especially the Bohol Tropics Resort – now the favorite site for national and even international gatherings, as well as the Tagbilaran City Tourist Port – the only one of its kind in the country today.

36

The marine ecosystem in Tagbilaran City and Maribojoc Bay which is the source of livelihood for marginal fishermen will face tremendous destruction unless this grave public nuisance shall be abated.

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

3.1 Introduction

To identify the condition of the coastal water in one of the drainage outfalls of Tagbilaran City, the researchers tested and analyzed the seawater samples from a specific outfall. The researchers used experimental method upon conducting the preliminary procedures for gathering of data.

3.2 Environment

This study was conducted near the vicinity of Graham Avenue in Tagbilaran City, Bohol. The drainage disposal point is called San Jose Outfall. The said location is where the drainage system of the city discharges its wastewater without any treatment.

The researchers chose the location since the possibility of it being the coastal area with the lowest water quality is high.

3.3 Research Instrument

Documents provided from the Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent Standards of 2016 issued by the DENR was used as basis for analyzing the data gathered. The sample collected was brought to a DENR recognized environmental laboratory located in Nasipit, Talamban, Cebu City where the apparatus for testing is available. Various types of tests were conducted on the

38

sample to identify the contents that was present in the specimen. The study also computed the water quality index using the WQI developed by CCME. Lastly, the researchers used an observation guide upon analyzing the test results.

3.4 Data Gathering Procedure

3.4.1 Obtaining the Specimen

The researchers collected water samples at the specified outfall in Tagbilaran City. Water containers differ on the parameters to be analyzed; sterilized glass bottles were used for coliform analysis; 1-gallon plastic bottles were used for other analyses. The containers were filled to the brim with no airspace and were covered with a plastic cap while it was still under the water surface. The researchers acquired the sample 5-10 meters away from the point where the waste water from the drainage and sea water fuses. One sample was collected for the month of June and one for the month of July.

3.4.2. Storing of Specimen

The specimen was enclosed in a clean container to avoid unnecessary contamination. It was placed in a Styrofoam box with ice to preserve the specimen while transporting it to the water laboratory. The sample was delivered to the laboratory not exceeding 6 hours from the time it was collected.

3.4.3 Testing of Specimen

39

Analyses of water samples were performed following the APHA-AWWA (1975 & 2005) methods of analysis (Table 4). Seven parameters were analyzed from the water samples namely: color, total suspended solids, pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrates, phosphates and fecal coliform. Table 4. List of Parameters and Methods of Analysis Parameter Physical

Color Total suspended solids

pH Dissolved oxygen Chemical Nitrate Phosphate Microbiological Fecal Coliform

Method of Analysis Visual Comparison Gravimetric Electrometric Azide Modification (Winkler Method) Brucine, colorimetric Ascorbic Acid, colorimetric Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique

3.4.4 Calculation of Water Quality Index (WQI)

Upon receiving the water test results, the researchers used an observation guide upon solving the WQI. The WQI equation was then calculated based on the mathematical framework provided by Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life: CCME Water Quality Index 1.0 (CCME 2001) for assessing ambient water quality conditions relative to water quality objectives (Table of DAO No. 2016-08), using three factors as follows: √ (𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 𝐹32 ) 𝑊𝑄𝐼 = 100 − 1.732 where: Factor 1: Scope

(𝐸𝑞. 1)

40

This represents the extent of water quality guideline non-compliance over the time period of interest and is calculated as follows: 𝐹1 =

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 100 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

(𝐸𝑞. 2)

Factor 2: Frequency This refers to the percentage of individual tests that do not meet the standards (failed tests): 𝐹2 =

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠 × 100 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

(𝐸𝑞. 3)

Factor 3: Amplitude This represents the amount by which failed test values do not meet their objectives. It is calculated in three steps: 1) Excursion or the number of times by which an individual concentration is greater than (or less than, when the objective is a minimum). When the value must not exceed the objective: 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 =

𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑖 − 1 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖

(𝐸𝑞. 4𝑎)

For cases in which the test value must not fall below the objective: 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 =

𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖 − 1 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑖

(𝐸𝑞. 4𝑏)

2) The normalized sum of excursions, or nse, is calculated as 𝑛𝑠𝑒 =

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠

(𝐸𝑞. 5)

3) Amplitude, F3 is then calculated as follows: 𝐹3 =

𝑛𝑠𝑒 0.01𝑛𝑠𝑒 + 0.01

(𝐸𝑞. 6)

41

3.4.5 Analyzing and Interpreting the Gathered Data

The calculated WQI were then compared to the water quality rank that provides a convenient description of summarizing complex water quality data. Table 3 shows the general description based on the calculated water quality.

3.4.6 Formulating the Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

After analyzing the gathered data, findings were summarized and conclusions were tabulated. Several recommendations were made to improve the study.

Chapter 4 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This chapter deals with the presentation of data and information that were gathered and collected together with their corresponding analysis and interpretations. The data and information gathered were about the coastal water quality at San Jose Drainage outfall in Tagbilaran City, Bohol.

The following are the information obtained on the physical, chemical and microbiological properties of the coastal water, the water quality index, and the possible impacts of the coastal water condition.

1. Physical Properties of the Coastal Water

Table 5. Coastal Water Quality in Terms of Physical Properties Sampling Event Parameters

Color

Units

TCU

pH (Range)

Water Quality Standards/

June

July

10

10

50

7.28

7.47

7.0-8.5

22.0 (±5.9)

32.5 (±1.0)

50

Objectives

Total Suspended

mg/L

Solids Table 5 shows the laboratory test results on the physical properties of the water samples. The color and total suspended solids in the seawater provide the visual quality of the water; the higher concentration signifies highly turbid water.

43

Color concentration of 50 TCU and beyond signals a turbid water which can be caused by natural disturbance such as increased sedimentation during rainy season or anthropogenic disturbance such as wastewater disposal. As observed from the table above, the color of the coastal water passed the water quality standard.

As stated in Chapter 2, pH can affect fish health. The optimum pH is usually between pH 7.5 and 8.5 (Boyd, 1998). Below pH 6.5, some species experience slow growth (Lloyd, 1992). At lower pH, the organism’s ability to maintain its salt balance is affected (Lloyd, 1992) and reproduction ceases. At approximately pH 4.0 or below and pH 11 or above, most species die (Lawson, 1995). From the laboratory results, it can be seen that the pH level also passed the standards.

Total suspended solids are water insoluble materials, including organic and inorganic, that are suspended in water such as silt, plankton and industrial wastes (Kumar et al., 2010). The Environmental Management Bureau (2008) stated that the higher the TSS value, the lower is the ability of the water to support

aquatic

life

due

to

reduced

light

penetration

affecting

plant

photosynthesis. Based on the results, the concentration of suspended solids in the water sample was within the standards.

44

2. Chemical Properties of the Coastal Water Table 6. Coastal Water Quality in Terms of Chemical Properties Sampling Event Parameters

Units

Water Quality Standards/

June

July

2.56

1.69

6

0.066

10

0.039

0.5

Objectives

Dissolved Oxygen

mg/L

(Minimum)

Nitrate Content Phosphate Content

mg/L

mg/L

0.318 (±0.001) 0.07

Table 5 presents the laboratory test results on the chemical properties of the water samples. It can be seen that all the paramters except Dissolved Oxygen meet the criteria for bodies of water classified as Class SB.

The low concentration of dissolved oxygen, which is observed from the laboratory results signifies a condition not favorable for the aquatic organisms to thrive in the water body. The dissolved oxygen concentration is a general indicator to assess organic pollution, and is commonly used in the environmental monitoring. High concentration of dissolved oxygen is

favorable to aquatic

organisms, while concentration lower than 2 mg/L in a prolong period could be detrimental leading to asphyxiation of fishes (Behar, 1997; Kutty, 1987). Natural and human-induced changes to the aquatic environment can affect the

45

availability of dissolved oxygen. For instance, cold water can hold more oxygen than warm water, and high levels of bacteria from sewage pollution can cause the percentage saturation to decrease(UNESCO). In this case, the low level of dissolved oxygen is caused by the high levels of bacteria from the wastewater of the city.

Nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates are essential for the growth of bacteria, algae and other tiny organisms in the water, however, the excessive amount fuels excessive growth of algae. This results to increased die-off and decomposition of algae blooms, reduced dissolved oxygen in water that would suffocate larger fishes. The table shows that the nitrate and phosphate of the coastal area meets the standard.

3. Microbiological Properties of the Coastal Water

Table 7. Coastal Water Quality in Terms of Microbiological Properties Sampling Event Parameters

Units

Water Quality

June

July

Standards/ Objectives

Fecal Coliform Total Coliform

MPN/100mL

13x10³

13x10³

MPN/100mL

24x10³

22x104

100

Table 7 shows the laboratory test results on the microbiological properties of the water samples. Bacteriological communities can be used as bio-indicators

46

of aquatic ecosystem dynamics and determination of their occurrence may help to assess water quality(Kumar et al., 2010). Total bacterial count can be a reliable indicator of organic pollution, because they are unable to survive in clean water beyond limited time and the number of bacteria present depends upon the degree of contamination (EMB, 2008).

Based on the results, it can be seen that the concentration of fecal coliform was far too off from the required concentration of fecal coliform for Class SB. As observed, both the water sample from June and July have the same concentration of fecal coliform but with different concentration of total coliform. The water sample during June is composed of 54.17% fecal and 45.83% nonfecal coliform bacteria while July has 5.91% fecal and 94.09% non-fecal coliform bacteria. With this, it can be inferred that the coastal area is considered unsuitable for recreational or bathing purposes.

Coliform bacteria may enter waters through a number of routes, including inadequately treated sewage, stormwater drains, septic tanks, runoff from animal grazing land, animal processing plants and from wildlife living in and around water bodies. In this case, the high concentration of coliform bacteria is caused by the disposal of wastewater in the area.

4. Water Quality Index

The physico-chemical parameters were used as indicators of ecosystem health and can be potentially linked directly to socio-economic indicators like

47

environmental protection. These indicators and discussions could further be reinforced by providing a general description of prevailing water quality of the coastal area, and can be done through the calculation of water quality index.

The water quality index (WQI) is used to provide convenient means of summarizing complex water quality data on coastal water quality of San Jose Outfall. It incorporates the information on water usage and classification of marine water bodies based on the DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08.

The CCME WQI indicates that the coastal water quality in San Jose Outlfall was Poor or with water quality almost always threatened or impaired and conditions usually depart from desirable quality as required under Class SB. Measured dissolved oxygen and fecal coliform concentrations exceeded objectives on two occasions each; these excursions were large and unlikely reflect from natural events. The possibility that these excursions were caused by the continuous wastewater disposal in the area is high.

5. Possible Impacts of the Coastal Water Condition

Based on the laboratory test results, the submitted seawater sample from the disposal point failed the following parameters: dissolved oxygen and fecal coliform.

Faecal coliform bacteria themselves are not harmful; however, they occur with intestinal pathogens (bacteria or viruses) that are dangerous to human health (UNESCO). Hence, their the presence of fecal coliform bacteria in aquatic

48

environments indicates that the water has been contaminated with the fecal material of man or other animals. At the time this occurred, the source water may have been contaminated by pathogens or disease producing bacteria or viruses which can also exist in fecal material. Some waterborne pathogenic diseases include ear infections, dysentery, typhoid fever, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis, and hepatitis A. The presence of fecal coliform tends to affect humans more than it does aquatic creatures, though not exclusively. While these bacteria do not directly cause disease, high quantities of fecal coliform bacteria suggest the presence of disease-causing agents. The presence of fecal contamination is an indicator that a potential health risk exists for individuals exposed to this water. Fecal coliform bacteria may occur in ambient water as a result of the overflow of domestic sewage or nonpoint sources of human and animal waste.

Untreated fecal material, such as contains fecal coliform, adds excess organic material to the water. The decay of this material depletes the water of oxygen causing low levels of dissolved oxygen in the water. oxygen may kill fish and other aquatic life.

This lowered

Reduction of fecal coliform in

wastewater may require use of chlorine and other disinfectant chemicals. Such materials may kill the fecal coliform and disease bacteria. They also kill bacteria essential to the proper balance of the aquatic environment, endangering the survival of species dependent on those bacteria.

So, higher levels of fecal

coliform require higher levels of chlorine, threatening those aquatic organisms (B. Oram, 2014).

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http://www.gov.ph/2004/03/22/republic-act-no-9275 R. M. Bhardwaj (2005). “Water Quality Monitoring in India- Achievements And Constraints”. IWG-Env,International Work Session on Water Statistics, Vienna. Retrieved February 9, 2017

"Sewerage - definition of sewerage in English from the Oxford dictionary". Oxforddictionaries.com.

Retrieved

February 11, 2017

from

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sewerage Takeshi Kobayashi and Yosuke Yamashiki (2000). “The U-23 Multiparameter Water Quality Monitoring

System”, Water Quality Observation of Lakes

and Marshes, and Potable Water Quality Monitor. Retrieved February 10, 2017

Tagbilaran Environmental Profile (2008). SCP-LEPM Retrieved February 10, 2017

Wastewater engineering : treatment and reuse (4th ed.). Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw

Hill, USA.

2003. p. 1807.

ISBN

0-07-112250-8.

APPENDIX A

LETTER TO THE CITY ENGINEERING OFFICIAL

REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES BOHOL ISLAND STATE UNIVERSITY-MAIN CAMPUS TAGBILARAN CITY, BOHOL Vision:

A premier Science and Technology University for the formation of a world class and virtuous human resource for sustainable development in Bohol and the Country.

Mission:

BISU is committed to provide quality higher education in the arts and sciences, as well as in the professional and technological fields; undertake research and development and extension services for the sustainable development of Bohol and the Country.

Feb. 16, 2017 ENGR. NOEL DATAHAN City Engineer’s Office Tagbilaran City, Bohol Sir: Greetings! The fourth year students taking up Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering of the Bohol Island State University Main Campus, in a partial fulfillment of the requirements of the said degree are conducting a research study with its title SEAWATER ANALYSIS IN SEWAGE DISPOSAL POINTS IN TAGBILARAN CITY. In line with this, the researchers humbly ask permission to get the necessary data for the realization of their study. Rest assured that these papers will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Your help will be a great tool for the success of the study. The researchers are hoping that this request will merit your favorable verdict. Thank you and more power to you! Respectfully yours, HONESTO EMMANUEL S. DANO Thesis Leader

PETER CONRAD H. PAIG Member

JAN JOSEPH L. TAPA Member

Noted: ENGR. MARY ANN QUIOBE MALATE Research Adviser

MS. MARIA NEMIA Research I Instructor

Recommending Approval:

Approved By:

ZINA D. SAYSON, Ph.D Dean, College of Engineering and Architecture

ENGR. NOEL DATAHAN City Engineering Official

55

APPENDIX B OBSERVATION GUIDE

Total

Dissolved

Parameters

Fecal Color suspended

pH

oxygen

Nitrate Phosphate Coliform

Unit

TCU

solids

(Minimum)

mg/L

mg/L

mg/L

mg/L

MPN/100mL

6

10

0.5

100

Sampling Event 1 Sampling Event 2 Water Quality

7.050

Standards/

50 8.5

Objectives Bolded values do not meet the objective

56

APPENDIX C FIGURE 2. PRICE QUOTATION

57

APPENDIX D CALCULATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX (WQI)

San Jose Outfall, Tagbilaran City – 2017

Parameters

Unit

Total Color

Dissolved

Suspended

pH

oxygen

JULY 12

Phosphate

Fecal Coliform

solids

(Minimum)

TCU

mg/L

mg/L

mg/L

mg/L

10

22.0 (±5.9)

7.28

2.56

0.318 (±0.001)

0.07

13x10³

10

32.5 (±1.0)

7.47

1.69

0.066

0.039

13x10³

50

50

6

10

0.5

100

JUNE 15

Nitrate

MPN/100 mL

Water Quality Standards/

7.08.5

Objectives

Bolded values do not meet the objective

The number of variables not meeting objectives is 2 (DO & Fecal Coliform). The total number of variables is 7. Therefore:

𝐹1 =

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 100 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝐹1 =

2 × 100 = 28.57 7

58

The number of tests not meeting objectives is 4, and the total number of tests is 14. In this case:

𝐹2 =

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠 × 100 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

𝐹2 =

4 × 100 = 28.57 14

The excursions, their nominal sum, and F3 are calculated as follows: 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖 –1 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑖

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 =

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛1 =

6 − 1 = 1.34 2.56

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛2 =

6 − 1 = 2.55 1.69

𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑖 –1 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑖

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 =

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛3 =

13 × 103 − 1 = 129 100

𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛4 =

13 × 103 − 1 = 129 100

𝑛𝑠𝑒 =

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑠

59

𝑛𝑠𝑒 =

1.34 + 2.55 + 129 + 129 = 18.71 14

𝐹3 = 𝐹3 =

𝑛𝑠𝑒 0.01𝑛𝑠𝑒 + 0.01

18.71 = 94.93 0.01(18.71) + 0.01

With the three factors now obtained, the index value can be calculated: 𝑊𝑄𝐼 = 100 − 𝑊𝑄𝐼 = 100 −

√ (𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 𝐹32 ) 1.732

√(28.572 + 28.572 + 94.932 ) = 40.43 1.732

Given the category ranges in Table 3, the water quality at San Jose outfall would be rated as “Poor” based on June and July 2017 data.

60

RESEARCHERS’ BIODATA

HONESTO EMMANUEL S. DANO “Zero”

PERSONAL DATA: Date of Birth :

August 10, 1996

Age

20

:

Place of Birth :

Cebu City

Citizenship

Filipino

:

Religion

:

Roman Catholic

Father’s Name

:

Honesto A. Dano

Mother’s Name

:

Marina S. Dano

Email Address

:

[email protected]

Contact Number

:

09075687080

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT:

Elementary :

Tiptip Elementary School Tiptip District, Tagbiliran City, Bohol

Secondary

:

Tagbilaran City Science High School Miguel Parras Ext., Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Tertiary

:

Bohol Island State University – Main Campus C.P.G. North Avenue, Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Course

:

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

61

JAN JOSEPH L. TAPA “Jan”

PERSONAL DATA:

Date of Birth :

July 20, 1997

Age

19

:

Place of Birth :

Tagbilaran City

Citizenship

Filipino

:

Religion

:

Roman Catholic

Father’s Name

:

Joseph A. Tapa

Mother’s Name

:

Anita L. Tapa

Email Address

:

[email protected]

Contact Number

:

09122598058

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT:

Elementary :

Songculan Elementary School Songculan, Dauis, Bohol

Secondary

:

Doctor Cecilio Putong National High School C.P.G. North Avenue, Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Tertiary

:

Bohol Island State University – Main Campus C.P.G. North Avenue, Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Course

:

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

62

PETER CONRAD H. PAIG “Popete”

PERSONAL DATA:

Date of Birth :

November 25, 1988

Age

28

:

Place of Birth :

Davao City

Citizenship

Filipino

:

Religion

:

Roman Catholic

Father’s Name

:

Conrado T. Paig

Mother’s Name

:

Pudenciana H. Paig

Email Address

:

[email protected]

Contact Number

:

09092741859

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT:

Elementary :

Magallanes Elementary School A. Pichon St., Davao City, Davao del Sur

Secondary

:

Davao City National High School F. Torres St., Davao City, Davao del Sur

Tertiary

:

Bohol Island State University – Main Campus C.P.G. North Avenue, Tagbilaran City, Bohol

Course

:

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering