Ch22
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Managing people ●
Managing people working as individuals and in groups
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 1
Objectives ●
●
●
●
To describe simple models of human cognition and their relevance for software managers To explain the key issues that determine the success or otherwise of team working To discuss the problems of selecting and retaining technical staff To introduce the people capability maturity model (PCMM)
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 2
Topics covered ● ● ● ●
Limits to thinking Group working Choosing and keeping people The people capability maturity model
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 3
People in the process ●
●
●
People are an organisation’s most important assets The tasks of a manager are essentially people oriented. Unless there is some understanding of people, management will be unsuccessful Software engineering is primarily a cognitive activity. Cognitive limitations effectively limit the software process
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 4
Management activities ● ● ● ● ● ●
Problem solving (using available people) Motivating (people who work on a project) Planning (what people are going to do) Estimating (how fast people will work) Controlling (people's activities) Organising (the way in which people work)
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 5
Limits to thinking ●
People don’t all think the same way but everyone is subject to some basic constraints on their thinking due to • • •
●
Memory organisation Knowledge representation Motivation influences
If we understand these constraints, we can understand how they affect people participating in the software process
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 6
rsenom F sS h o r t e r m m e o y W o r k i n g m e o r y L o n g t e r m e m o r y (L arge capciy,slw aces)
Memory organisation
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 7
Shortterm memory ● ● ●
●
Fast access, limited capacity 57 locations Holds 'chunks' of information where the size of a chunk may vary depending on its familiarity Fast decay time
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 8
Working memory ● ●
●
Larger capacity, longer access time Memory area used to integrate information from shortterm memory and longterm memory. Relatively fast decay time.
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 9
Longterm memory ● ● ●
●
Slow access, very large capacity Unreliable retrieval mechanism Slow but finite decay time information needs reinforced Relatively high threshold work has to be done to get information into longterm memory.
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 10
Information transfer ●
●
●
Problem solving usually requires transfer between shortterm memory and working memory Information may be lost or corrupted during this transfer Information processing occurs in the transfer from shortterm to longterm memory
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 11
L opC (om ropceasre aeudntjsiorcee nadrt eplya)rm t o f a r y ) e n t s S w ap ifnecsary sotha sm aler com es first
Cognitive chunking
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 12
Knowledge modelling ●
●
●
Semantic knowledge knowledge of concepts such as the operation of assignment, concept of parameter passing etc. Syntactic knowledge knowledge of details of a representation e.g. an Ada while loop. Semantic knowledge seems to be stored in a structured, representation independent way.
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 13
Syntactic/semantic knowledge
C o m p u t e r k n o w l e d g e T ask now ledgeSm yntaci know ledge antic knw ldg S
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 14
Knowledge acquisition ●
● ●
Semantic knowledge through experience and active learning the 'ah' factor Syntactic knowledge acquired by memorisation. New syntactic knowledge can interfere with existing syntactic knowledge. •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Problems arise for experienced programmers in mixing up syntax of different programming languages
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 15
Semantic knowledge ●
●
●
●
Computing concepts notion of a writable store, iteration, concept of an object, etc. Task concepts principally algorithmic how to tackle a particular task Software development ability is the ability to integrate new knowledge with existing computer and task knowledge and hence derive creative problem solutions Thus, problem solving is language independent
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 16
Problem solving ●
●
●
Requires the integration of different types of knowledge (computer, task, domain, organisation) Development of a semantic model of the solution and testing of this model against the problem Representation of this model in an appropriate notation or programming language
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 17
resw to lkunioow P a lnlsedgeS P roblemN lW o torkiionng u m e y iL E songttegrm x em ory
Problem solving
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 18
Motivation ●
●
An important role of a manager is to motivate the people working on a project Motivation is a complex issue but it appears that their are different types of motivation based on • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Basic needs (e.g. food, sleep, etc.) Personal needs (e.g. respect, selfesteem) Social needs (e.g. to be accepted as part of a group)
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 19
S e l f realization edsE tP hyS s e m n e d s csifoeilatylg niceald o s neds
Human needs hierarchy
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 20
Motivating people ● ●
●
Motivations depend on satisfying needs It can be assumed that physiological and safety needs are satisfied Social, esteem and selfrealization needs are most significant from a managerial viewpoint
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 21
Need satisfaction ●
Social • •
●
Esteem • •
●
Provide communal facilities Allow informal communications Recognition of achievements Appropriate rewards
Selfrealization • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Training people want to learn more Responsibility
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 22
Personality types ●
●
The needs hierarchy is almost certainly an over simplification Motivation should also take into account different personality types: • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Taskoriented Selforiented Interactionoriented
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 23
Personality types ●
Taskoriented. •
●
Selforiented. •
●
The motivation for doing the work is the work itself The work is a means to an end which is the achievement of individual goals e.g. to get rich, to play tennis, to travel etc.
Interactionoriented •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
The principal motivation is the presence and actions of coworkers. People go to work because they like to go to work
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 24
Motivation balance ●
●
●
●
Individual motivations are made up of elements of each class Balance can change depending on personal circumstances and external events However, people are not just motivated by personal factors but also by being part of a group and culture. People go to work because they are motivated by the people that they work with
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 25
Group working ●
Most software engineering is a group activity •
●
●
The development schedule for most nontrivial software projects is such that they cannot be completed by one person working alone
Group interaction is a key determinant of group performance Flexibility in group composition is limited •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Managers must do the best they can with available people
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 26
2 0 % N o n a r3 p o d u c t i v e c t i v t i e s 5 0 % I n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o h p e p l e 0 % W o rk in g alo n e
Time distribution
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 27
Group composition ●
Group composed of members who share the same motivation can be problematic • • •
● ●
●
Taskoriented everyone wants to do their own thing Selforiented everyone wants to be the boss Interactionoriented too much chatting, not enough work
An effective group has a balance of all types Can be difficult to achieve because most engineers are taskoriented Need for all members to be involved in decisions which affect the group
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 28
Group leadership ●
●
●
●
Leadership depends on respect not titular status There may be both a technical and an administrative leader Democratic leadership is more effective that autocratic leadership A career path based on technical competence should be supported
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 29
Group cohesiveness ●
●
In a cohesive group, members consider the group to be more important than any individual in it Advantages of a cohesive group are: • • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Group quality standards can be developed Group members work closely together so inhibitions caused by ignorance are reduced Team members learn from each other and get to know each other’s work Egoless programming where members strive to improve each other’s programs can be practised
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 30
Developing cohesiveness ●
●
Cohesiveness is influenced by factors such as the organisational culture and the personalities in the group Cohesiveness can be encouraged through • • •
●
Social events Developing a group identity and territory Explicit teambuilding activities
Openness with information is a simple way of ensuring all group members feel part of the group
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 31
Group loyalties ●
●
●
Group members tend to be loyal to cohesive groups 'Groupthink' is preservation of group irrespective of technical or organizational considerations Management should act positively to avoid groupthink by forcing external involvement with each group
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 32
Group communications ●
●
●
Good communications are essential for effective group working Information must be exchanged on the status of work, design decisions and changes to previous decisions Good communications also strengthens group cohesion as it promotes understanding
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 33
Group communications ●
Status of group members •
●
Personalities in groups •
●
Too many people of the same personality type can be a problem
Sexual composition of group •
●
Higher status members tend to dominate conversations
Mixedsex groups tend to communicate better
Communication channels •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Communications channelled though a central coordinator tend to be ineffective
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 34
Group organisation ●
●
●
●
Software engineering group sizes should be relatively small (< 8 members) Break big projects down into multiple smaller projects Small teams may be organised in an informal, democratic way Chief programmer teams try to make the most effective use of skills and experience
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 35
Democratic team organisation ●
●
●
●
The group acts as a whole and comes to a consensus on decisions affecting the system The group leader serves as the external interface of the group but does not allocate specific work items Rather, work is discussed by the group as a whole and tasks are allocated according to ability and experience This approach is successful for groups where all members are experienced and competent
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 36
Extreme programming groups ●
●
●
Extreme programming groups are variants of democratic organisation In extreme programming groups, some ‘management’ decisions are devolved to group members Programmers work in pairs and take a collective responsibility for code that is developed
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 37
S iA p tT ld e om c a s p o l N u c l e u s o f c h i e f p r o g a m e r t a m iO tS n s r a o r haim efrL B a c k u p lT iec shp.ecuathlhosrt progC m p r o g m e r i b r a i n O u t s i d e C o m n c a t i o n st pecialst
Chief programmer teams
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 38
Chief programmer teams ●
●
●
Consist of a kernel of specialists helped by others added to the project as required The motivation behind their development is the wide difference in ability in different programmers Chief programmer teams provide a supporting environment for very able programmers to be responsible for most of the system development
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 39
Problems ●
●
This chief programmer approach, in different forms, has undoubtedly been successful However, it suffers from a number of problems • • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Talented designers and programmers are hard to find. Without exception people in these roles, the approach will fail Other group members may resent the chief programmer taking the credit for success so may deliberately undermine his/her role High project risk as the project will fail if both the chief and deputy programmer are unavailable Organisational structures and grades may be unable to accommodate this type of group
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 40
Choosing and keeping people ●
●
Choosing people to work on a project is a major managerial responsibility Appointment decisions are usually based on • • •
●
information provided by the candidate (their resumé or CV) information gained at an interview recommendations from other people who know the candidate
Some companies use psychological or aptitude tests •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
There is no agreement on whether or not these tests are actually useful
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 41
Factor Application domain experience Platform experience Programming language experience Educational background
Communication ability Adaptability
Attitude
Personality
Explanation For a project to develop a successful system, the developers must understand the application domain. May be significant if lowlevel programming is involved. Otherwise, not usually a critical attribute. Normally only significant for short duration projects where there is insufficient time to learn a new language. May provide an indicator of the basic fundamentals which the candidate should know and of their ability to learn. This factor becomes increasingly irrelevant as engineers gain experience across a range of projects. Very important because of the need for project staff to communicate orally and in writing with other engineers, managers and customers. Adaptability may be judged by looking at the different types of experience which candidates have had. This is an important attribute as it indicates an ability to learn. Project staff should have a positive attitude to their work and should be willing to learn new skills. This is an important attribute but often very difficult to assess. Again, an important attribute but difficult to assess. Candidates must be reasonably compatible with other team members. No particular type of personality is more or less suited to software engineering.
Staff selection factors
Working environments ●
Physical workplace provision has an important effect on individual productivity and satisfaction • • •
●
Comfort Privacy Facilities
Health and safety considerations must be taken into account • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Lighting Heating Furniture
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 43
Environmental factors ●
●
●
Privacy each engineer requires an area for uninterrupted work Outside awareness people prefer to work in natural light Personalization individuals adopt different working practices and like to organize their environment in different ways
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 44
Workspace organisation ●
Workspaces should provide private spaces where people can work without interruption •
●
Providing individual offices for staff has been shown to increase productivity
However, teams working together also require spaces where formal and informal meetings can be held
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 45
M e t i n g r o m W i n d o w fO O ificceeO O f i c e C o m u n a l a r e O f i c e fO ificceeO fO ificceedocuS rm h a entdion
Office layout
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 46
The People Capability Maturity Model ●
●
Intended as a framework for managing the development of people involved in software development Five stage model • • • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Initial. Adhoc people management Repeatable. Policies developed for capability improvement Defined. Standardised people management across the organisation Managed. Quantitative goals for people management in place Optimizing. Continuous focus on improving individual competence and workforce motivation Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 47
O p t i m z i n g C o n t u o s w o r k f o r c e i n o v a t i o n C o n t i u o s l y i m p r o v e m e t h o d s f r d e v p n g e s n a l n a c h i n g g a s a t i a c t c P e r s a l C m p e t n y D e l p m e t M a n g e d iestam tw Q u a n a v e l y m a n g e O r g a n i s t o n a l P e r f o m a n c e A l i g n m e n t o r g s o n a g r o w t h i n a C p e t y M a k f o r c p b i l s a d T e m b e d r c t i s b l i h m e t n c y b e a B u i l n g s M n t o r n g D e f i n e d Icado elm ttgivpiew n fyo snp krcw ifm aeiotsh cry nd P a r t c p a t o r y C u l t r e C o m e n c b a s d P a c t i e s e m D v e l o p m n p t y D e v l o p m n W o r k f o r c P a n i g K n w l e d g e d S k s A a l y s i R e p a t b l e taoticrviklpf obn sw Id n arsesi cntoC o m n s i o n iC rS T a g P e f r a c e M a n g e m n t t n o m u i t o W r k e v r n m e n t In ital The People Capability Maturity Model
PCMM Objectives ●
●
●
●
To improve organisational capability by improving workforce capability To ensure that software development capability is not reliant on a small number of individuals To align the motivation of individuals with that of the organisation To help retain people with critical knowledge and skills
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 49
Key points ●
●
●
Managers must have some understanding of human factors to avoid making unrealistic demands on people Problem solving involves integrating information from longterm memory with new information from shortterm memory Staff selection factors include education, domain experience, adaptability and personality
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 50
Key points ●
●
●
●
Software development groups should be small and cohesive Group communications are affected by status, group size, group organisation and the sexual composition of the group The working environment has a significant effect on productivity The People Capability Maturity Model is a framework for improving the capabilities of staff in an organisation
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 51
Managing people working as individuals and in groups
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 1
Objectives ●
●
●
●
To describe simple models of human cognition and their relevance for software managers To explain the key issues that determine the success or otherwise of team working To discuss the problems of selecting and retaining technical staff To introduce the people capability maturity model (PCMM)
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 2
Topics covered ● ● ● ●
Limits to thinking Group working Choosing and keeping people The people capability maturity model
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 3
People in the process ●
●
●
People are an organisation’s most important assets The tasks of a manager are essentially people oriented. Unless there is some understanding of people, management will be unsuccessful Software engineering is primarily a cognitive activity. Cognitive limitations effectively limit the software process
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 4
Management activities ● ● ● ● ● ●
Problem solving (using available people) Motivating (people who work on a project) Planning (what people are going to do) Estimating (how fast people will work) Controlling (people's activities) Organising (the way in which people work)
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 5
Limits to thinking ●
People don’t all think the same way but everyone is subject to some basic constraints on their thinking due to • • •
●
Memory organisation Knowledge representation Motivation influences
If we understand these constraints, we can understand how they affect people participating in the software process
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 6
rsenom F sS h o r t e r m m e o y W o r k i n g m e o r y L o n g t e r m e m o r y (L arge capciy,slw aces)
Memory organisation
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 7
Shortterm memory ● ● ●
●
Fast access, limited capacity 57 locations Holds 'chunks' of information where the size of a chunk may vary depending on its familiarity Fast decay time
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 8
Working memory ● ●
●
Larger capacity, longer access time Memory area used to integrate information from shortterm memory and longterm memory. Relatively fast decay time.
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 9
Longterm memory ● ● ●
●
Slow access, very large capacity Unreliable retrieval mechanism Slow but finite decay time information needs reinforced Relatively high threshold work has to be done to get information into longterm memory.
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 10
Information transfer ●
●
●
Problem solving usually requires transfer between shortterm memory and working memory Information may be lost or corrupted during this transfer Information processing occurs in the transfer from shortterm to longterm memory
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 11
L opC (om ropceasre aeudntjsiorcee nadrt eplya)rm t o f a r y ) e n t s S w ap ifnecsary sotha sm aler com es first
Cognitive chunking
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 12
Knowledge modelling ●
●
●
Semantic knowledge knowledge of concepts such as the operation of assignment, concept of parameter passing etc. Syntactic knowledge knowledge of details of a representation e.g. an Ada while loop. Semantic knowledge seems to be stored in a structured, representation independent way.
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 13
Syntactic/semantic knowledge
C o m p u t e r k n o w l e d g e T ask now ledgeSm yntaci know ledge antic knw ldg S
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 14
Knowledge acquisition ●
● ●
Semantic knowledge through experience and active learning the 'ah' factor Syntactic knowledge acquired by memorisation. New syntactic knowledge can interfere with existing syntactic knowledge. •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Problems arise for experienced programmers in mixing up syntax of different programming languages
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 15
Semantic knowledge ●
●
●
●
Computing concepts notion of a writable store, iteration, concept of an object, etc. Task concepts principally algorithmic how to tackle a particular task Software development ability is the ability to integrate new knowledge with existing computer and task knowledge and hence derive creative problem solutions Thus, problem solving is language independent
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 16
Problem solving ●
●
●
Requires the integration of different types of knowledge (computer, task, domain, organisation) Development of a semantic model of the solution and testing of this model against the problem Representation of this model in an appropriate notation or programming language
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 17
resw to lkunioow P a lnlsedgeS P roblemN lW o torkiionng u m e y iL E songttegrm x em ory
Problem solving
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 18
Motivation ●
●
An important role of a manager is to motivate the people working on a project Motivation is a complex issue but it appears that their are different types of motivation based on • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Basic needs (e.g. food, sleep, etc.) Personal needs (e.g. respect, selfesteem) Social needs (e.g. to be accepted as part of a group)
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 19
S e l f realization edsE tP hyS s e m n e d s csifoeilatylg niceald o s neds
Human needs hierarchy
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 20
Motivating people ● ●
●
Motivations depend on satisfying needs It can be assumed that physiological and safety needs are satisfied Social, esteem and selfrealization needs are most significant from a managerial viewpoint
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 21
Need satisfaction ●
Social • •
●
Esteem • •
●
Provide communal facilities Allow informal communications Recognition of achievements Appropriate rewards
Selfrealization • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Training people want to learn more Responsibility
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 22
Personality types ●
●
The needs hierarchy is almost certainly an over simplification Motivation should also take into account different personality types: • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Taskoriented Selforiented Interactionoriented
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 23
Personality types ●
Taskoriented. •
●
Selforiented. •
●
The motivation for doing the work is the work itself The work is a means to an end which is the achievement of individual goals e.g. to get rich, to play tennis, to travel etc.
Interactionoriented •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
The principal motivation is the presence and actions of coworkers. People go to work because they like to go to work
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 24
Motivation balance ●
●
●
●
Individual motivations are made up of elements of each class Balance can change depending on personal circumstances and external events However, people are not just motivated by personal factors but also by being part of a group and culture. People go to work because they are motivated by the people that they work with
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 25
Group working ●
Most software engineering is a group activity •
●
●
The development schedule for most nontrivial software projects is such that they cannot be completed by one person working alone
Group interaction is a key determinant of group performance Flexibility in group composition is limited •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Managers must do the best they can with available people
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 26
2 0 % N o n a r3 p o d u c t i v e c t i v t i e s 5 0 % I n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o h p e p l e 0 % W o rk in g alo n e
Time distribution
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 27
Group composition ●
Group composed of members who share the same motivation can be problematic • • •
● ●
●
Taskoriented everyone wants to do their own thing Selforiented everyone wants to be the boss Interactionoriented too much chatting, not enough work
An effective group has a balance of all types Can be difficult to achieve because most engineers are taskoriented Need for all members to be involved in decisions which affect the group
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 28
Group leadership ●
●
●
●
Leadership depends on respect not titular status There may be both a technical and an administrative leader Democratic leadership is more effective that autocratic leadership A career path based on technical competence should be supported
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 29
Group cohesiveness ●
●
In a cohesive group, members consider the group to be more important than any individual in it Advantages of a cohesive group are: • • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Group quality standards can be developed Group members work closely together so inhibitions caused by ignorance are reduced Team members learn from each other and get to know each other’s work Egoless programming where members strive to improve each other’s programs can be practised
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 30
Developing cohesiveness ●
●
Cohesiveness is influenced by factors such as the organisational culture and the personalities in the group Cohesiveness can be encouraged through • • •
●
Social events Developing a group identity and territory Explicit teambuilding activities
Openness with information is a simple way of ensuring all group members feel part of the group
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 31
Group loyalties ●
●
●
Group members tend to be loyal to cohesive groups 'Groupthink' is preservation of group irrespective of technical or organizational considerations Management should act positively to avoid groupthink by forcing external involvement with each group
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 32
Group communications ●
●
●
Good communications are essential for effective group working Information must be exchanged on the status of work, design decisions and changes to previous decisions Good communications also strengthens group cohesion as it promotes understanding
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 33
Group communications ●
Status of group members •
●
Personalities in groups •
●
Too many people of the same personality type can be a problem
Sexual composition of group •
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Higher status members tend to dominate conversations
Mixedsex groups tend to communicate better
Communication channels •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Communications channelled though a central coordinator tend to be ineffective
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 34
Group organisation ●
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Software engineering group sizes should be relatively small (< 8 members) Break big projects down into multiple smaller projects Small teams may be organised in an informal, democratic way Chief programmer teams try to make the most effective use of skills and experience
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 35
Democratic team organisation ●
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The group acts as a whole and comes to a consensus on decisions affecting the system The group leader serves as the external interface of the group but does not allocate specific work items Rather, work is discussed by the group as a whole and tasks are allocated according to ability and experience This approach is successful for groups where all members are experienced and competent
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 36
Extreme programming groups ●
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Extreme programming groups are variants of democratic organisation In extreme programming groups, some ‘management’ decisions are devolved to group members Programmers work in pairs and take a collective responsibility for code that is developed
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 37
S iA p tT ld e om c a s p o l N u c l e u s o f c h i e f p r o g a m e r t a m iO tS n s r a o r haim efrL B a c k u p lT iec shp.ecuathlhosrt progC m p r o g m e r i b r a i n O u t s i d e C o m n c a t i o n st pecialst
Chief programmer teams
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 38
Chief programmer teams ●
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Consist of a kernel of specialists helped by others added to the project as required The motivation behind their development is the wide difference in ability in different programmers Chief programmer teams provide a supporting environment for very able programmers to be responsible for most of the system development
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 39
Problems ●
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This chief programmer approach, in different forms, has undoubtedly been successful However, it suffers from a number of problems • • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Talented designers and programmers are hard to find. Without exception people in these roles, the approach will fail Other group members may resent the chief programmer taking the credit for success so may deliberately undermine his/her role High project risk as the project will fail if both the chief and deputy programmer are unavailable Organisational structures and grades may be unable to accommodate this type of group
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 40
Choosing and keeping people ●
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Choosing people to work on a project is a major managerial responsibility Appointment decisions are usually based on • • •
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information provided by the candidate (their resumé or CV) information gained at an interview recommendations from other people who know the candidate
Some companies use psychological or aptitude tests •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
There is no agreement on whether or not these tests are actually useful
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 41
Factor Application domain experience Platform experience Programming language experience Educational background
Communication ability Adaptability
Attitude
Personality
Explanation For a project to develop a successful system, the developers must understand the application domain. May be significant if lowlevel programming is involved. Otherwise, not usually a critical attribute. Normally only significant for short duration projects where there is insufficient time to learn a new language. May provide an indicator of the basic fundamentals which the candidate should know and of their ability to learn. This factor becomes increasingly irrelevant as engineers gain experience across a range of projects. Very important because of the need for project staff to communicate orally and in writing with other engineers, managers and customers. Adaptability may be judged by looking at the different types of experience which candidates have had. This is an important attribute as it indicates an ability to learn. Project staff should have a positive attitude to their work and should be willing to learn new skills. This is an important attribute but often very difficult to assess. Again, an important attribute but difficult to assess. Candidates must be reasonably compatible with other team members. No particular type of personality is more or less suited to software engineering.
Staff selection factors
Working environments ●
Physical workplace provision has an important effect on individual productivity and satisfaction • • •
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Comfort Privacy Facilities
Health and safety considerations must be taken into account • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Lighting Heating Furniture
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 43
Environmental factors ●
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Privacy each engineer requires an area for uninterrupted work Outside awareness people prefer to work in natural light Personalization individuals adopt different working practices and like to organize their environment in different ways
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 44
Workspace organisation ●
Workspaces should provide private spaces where people can work without interruption •
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Providing individual offices for staff has been shown to increase productivity
However, teams working together also require spaces where formal and informal meetings can be held
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 45
M e t i n g r o m W i n d o w fO O ificceeO O f i c e C o m u n a l a r e O f i c e fO ificceeO fO ificceedocuS rm h a entdion
Office layout
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 46
The People Capability Maturity Model ●
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Intended as a framework for managing the development of people involved in software development Five stage model • • • • •
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Initial. Adhoc people management Repeatable. Policies developed for capability improvement Defined. Standardised people management across the organisation Managed. Quantitative goals for people management in place Optimizing. Continuous focus on improving individual competence and workforce motivation Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 47
O p t i m z i n g C o n t u o s w o r k f o r c e i n o v a t i o n C o n t i u o s l y i m p r o v e m e t h o d s f r d e v p n g e s n a l n a c h i n g g a s a t i a c t c P e r s a l C m p e t n y D e l p m e t M a n g e d iestam tw Q u a n a v e l y m a n g e O r g a n i s t o n a l P e r f o m a n c e A l i g n m e n t o r g s o n a g r o w t h i n a C p e t y M a k f o r c p b i l s a d T e m b e d r c t i s b l i h m e t n c y b e a B u i l n g s M n t o r n g D e f i n e d Icado elm ttgivpiew n fyo snp krcw ifm aeiotsh cry nd P a r t c p a t o r y C u l t r e C o m e n c b a s d P a c t i e s e m D v e l o p m n p t y D e v l o p m n W o r k f o r c P a n i g K n w l e d g e d S k s A a l y s i R e p a t b l e taoticrviklpf obn sw Id n arsesi cntoC o m n s i o n iC rS T a g P e f r a c e M a n g e m n t t n o m u i t o W r k e v r n m e n t In ital The People Capability Maturity Model
PCMM Objectives ●
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To improve organisational capability by improving workforce capability To ensure that software development capability is not reliant on a small number of individuals To align the motivation of individuals with that of the organisation To help retain people with critical knowledge and skills
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 49
Key points ●
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Managers must have some understanding of human factors to avoid making unrealistic demands on people Problem solving involves integrating information from longterm memory with new information from shortterm memory Staff selection factors include education, domain experience, adaptability and personality
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 50
Key points ●
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Software development groups should be small and cohesive Group communications are affected by status, group size, group organisation and the sexual composition of the group The working environment has a significant effect on productivity The People Capability Maturity Model is a framework for improving the capabilities of staff in an organisation
©Ian Sommerville 2000
Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 22
Slide 51
