Nervous System Development
Dr. Diana Casper Director, Neurosurgery Lab Montefiore Medical Center and The Albert Einstein College of Medicine The Bronx, New York
Lecture Overview • • • • • • • •
Historical perspective Neural induction, histogenesis, migration Brain morphogenesis Synapse formation Cell death Postdevelopmental neural plasticity Developmental abnormalities Brain repair?
Phases of Brain Development •
Induction
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Proliferation
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Migration
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Differentiation
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Synaptogenesis
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Selective cell death
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Neural plasticity
– Determination of cells that will become nervous tissue – Neurogenesis, gliogenesis – Location of cells in appropriate brain areas – Development of neurons into particular type – Formation of appropriate synaptic connections, strengthening of synapses in use, weakening of unused synapses – Elimination of neuronsWrong connections? Superfluous? Weak? – Learning, memory, regeneration, repair
Early work on neural induction •
Hans Spemann – – –
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Viktor Hamburger (19002001) – –
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identified the “nerve growth factor” (1950’s) necessary for the survival of sensory, but not motor neurons
Salome Waelsch (19072007) – –
“Our real teacher has been and still is the embryo, who is, incidentally, the only teacher who is always right." Viktor Hamburger Studied with Spemann in Freiburg, then with Dr. Frank Lillie in Chicago. Worked >50 years at Washington University in St. Louis. His early studies on axon growth led him to postulate that growth factors directed this process. Discovered NGF, programmed cell death.
Rita LeviMontalcini – –
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Experimental embryology Showed that tissues needed to interact to form nervous system Discovered neural organizerthe dorsal lip of the blastopore (1920’s)
Founder of developmental genetics. Trained with Hans Spemann in Freiberg Studies genes responsible for developmentTlocus in micefailure to form posterior neural tube in 1930’s, (LC Dunn’s lab). Most people did not believe that genes were responsible for development. Between 1938 and 1949 she identified many genes that participated in developmentnote that at this time, people were still arguing whether the nucleus or the cytoplasm were the basis of heredity. She did not get to examine gene products, the biochemistry of the mutations, until the 70’s.
Neural Induction • Gastrulation:
http://worms.zoology.wisc.edu/frogs/gastx
– polarity of embryo – 3 cell layers
• Induction:
– mesoderm + ectoderm = neuroepithelium
• Mechanism:
– growth factors (e.g. bFGF)
Illustration from Jeff Radel (with permission)
Neural induction occurs with gastrulation •
During gastrulation the blastula flattens and cells on the surface fold inward (invaginate) to form three layers: an outer layer (ectoderm), an inner layer (endoderm), and an intermediate layer (mesoderm).
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The neural plate forms from epithelial cells as the endoderm thickens. The neural folds form as the thickening continues and bulges towards midline.
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The invagination of cells takes place along the neural groove, an indentation aligned along the dorsal midline of the embryo.
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Hensen's node is a pit formed at the anterior end of the neural groove. Invagination begins at Hensen’s node and proceeds posteriorly
Illustration from Jeff Radel (with permission)
Neurulation • Mesoderm forms notocord • Overlying ectoderm becomes neuroectoderm • Invaginates and forms tube • Subpopulation neural crest cells begin to migrate
Neural Crest Cells • Migrate in response to cues obtained by cellcell interactions and factors secreted by somites, aorta, mesenchyme, target sites, and autocrine factors • Path of migration and target location determine what they become (position dependent cues)
Neural crest cells migrate to different regions and differentiate into many diverse cell types Neural crest progenitor
Schwann cell LIF
Sensory neuron
bFGF
Sympathetic progenitor NGF
Adrenergic neuron
Stem cell factor
Melanocyte
Muscles/cartilage/bone in head and neck glucocorticoids
Chromaffin Cell progenitor
CNTF
Cholinergic neuron
glucocorticoids
Chromaffin cell
Closure of the neural tube. •
Failure to close neural tube – Spinabifida – Anencephaly
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/
From neural tube closure to 3 vesicle stage
http://home.iprimus.com.au/rboon/StagesofBrainDevelopment.htm
Development of spinal cord, somites, sensory placodes • Sensory neurons of the PNS are located dorsal to the sulcus limitans, and are born after the motor neurons. The mesoderm forms the somites, 31 pairs of cell clusters located to each side of the neural tube. • The somites produce skeletal muscles, as well as the vertebrae, the ribs, and the deep layer of the skin (the dermis). • Somites form along the anteroposterior axis of the embryo, in a repeated pattern called segmentation. Segmentation in the human body can be seen in the pattern of the somatic dermatomes.
Illustration from Jeff Radel (with permission)
Nodes and somites form around neural tube •
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The sensory placodes are produced from the ectoderm in the head region of the embryo. Each placode will form a specific sense organ.
otic placode (ear) optic placode (eye)
Interestingly, the nasal (olfactory) placode gives rise to GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) neurons in the hypothalamusthey migrate from outside the CNS into the brain
somites
nasal placode
Illustration from Jeff Radel (with permission)
Development of the Meninges • Mesenchyme surrounding the neural tube produces: – pia mater – arachnoid mater – dura mater
• Subarachnoid space forms from a cavity in mesenchyme
Molecular mediators of neural induction: (note that this is not an exhaustive list)
• Retinoic acid:
–receptors are intracellular –complexes bind to DNA, regulating transcription (e.g. hox, shh) –severe gross morphological defects from deficiency or excess
• Growth factors:
–Fibroblast growth factors (FGF’s)
• receptors are tyrosine kinases, and modulated by heparan sulfate
–Transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) family
• bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP’s) (induce osteoblasts from mesoderm) – receptors are serine kinases – induce epithelial phenotype unless intercepted by noggin and chordin
–Wnt
• named after the “wingless” phenotype in drosophila • participates in neural induction, differentiation (forebrain, neural crest, and cerebellum)
–Sonic Hedgehog
• Determines ventral structures of neural tube (e.g. motor neurons)
–Delta and notched
Polarization of Neuroepithelium • The neuroepithelium is polarized by the notocord. The region closest to the notocord becomes the “floorplate”. The region at the opposite end forms the “roofplate” and cells lateral to the roofplate become the neural crest, which migrate and become sensory and autonomic ganglia, adrenal chromaffin cells, and nonneuronal cells • Polarization, segmentation and differentiation mediated by: – Diffusable signals (polarity, segmentation, determination) – Form gradients as well as boundaries – Neurotrophic factors (FGF, EGF, BDNF,TGFβ, CNTF, BMP’s and many others) • Their receptors are protein kinases
– Transcription factorsretinoic acid, homeobox genes
From Purves
Neural Tube: Cellular and Molecular Events
Brain Morphogenesis • 3 vesicle stageuneven proliferation and migration cause bulging (3 vesicles) and flexion (cephalic and cervical flexures). • Prosencephalon (forebrain) becomes:
– Telencephalon gives rise to cortex, hippocampus, and basal ganglia (ganglionic eminence), basal forebrain, and olfactory bulb – Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, optic cups) – genetic or environmental insultsexcessive vitamin A, alcohol, thalidomide, cholesterol altered metabolism, dietary insufficiency (folic acid), hypothyroidism causes a failure of to differentiate into forebrain
• Mesencephalon (midbrain) gives rise to – Tectum: superior and inferior colliculi – Tegmentumsubstantia nigra, etc
• Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) becomes
– Metencephalon (rostral portion, cerebellum and pons) – Myelencephalon (caudal portion, medulla)
Brain Morphogenesis
http://home.iprimus.com.au/rboon/StagesofBrainDevelopment.htm
Homeotic Genes • Clustered on multiple chromosomes • Encode homeobox proteinstranscription factors • These factors regulate many genes involved in pattern formation
http://www nmr.cabm.rutgers.edu/photogallery/proteins/htm/page20. htm
Homeobox genes control development of entire body parts
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Transcription factors
http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Antennapedia_mutant.htm
From Purves
Mesencephalon and Rhombencephalon
The mesencephalon is not subdivided, while the rhombencephalon is divided into the metencephalon:and the myelencephalon: In the rhombencephalon, subsegments termed rhombomeres are apparent, as is the thin layer of cells at the dorsal-most aspect of this brain region. 10day mouse embryo, approximate human age 5 weeks
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/nerv_htms/nerv016.htm
Rhombomeres • • • •
Segmentation of myelencephalon Homeobox genes differentially expressed Come in pairs Cranial nerves arise from specific locations
Anteriorposterior segmentation: Homeobox genes
Single mutations in pattern development genes result in deletion of entire brain part
Homeoboxlike transcription factors control development of forebrain and midbrain
Proliferation and Histogenesis • • • • • • • • •
How do we generate 100 billion neurons and at least that number of glia? Proliferation and arrangement of neuroepithelium (ventricular zone) as it grows. Pseudostratified epithelium 250,000 neurons per minute Neurons migrate insideout in peripheral structuresoutside in in deeper structures Neurons born first, then glia Process orchestrated by growth factors Differentiated neurons are postmitotic Some glia proliferate when activated Stem cells in the adult brainElizabeth Gould, Cynthia ShannonWeickert, Fred Gage
http://www.mouseatlas.org/data/ mouse/libraries/SM052/view An intact sagittal cryosection of telencephalon at embryonic day (E) 12.5 was stained with cresyl violet. SVZ/VZ = subventricular and ventricular zone; LV = lateral ventricle; D = dorsal; V = ventral; R = rostral.
• The brain is hollow • Billions of neurons and glia will fill in this hollowness • But, the brain remains hollow throughout life • Why?
Neurogenesis
http://home.iprimus.com.au/rboon/StagesofBrainDevelopment.htm
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_ images/unitnervous/
• Neural precursors are born in the ventricular zone and cell bodies move towards pial surface to replicate DNA
How do we know when cells are born? • Birthdating – 3[H]thymidine – BrdU (bromodeoxyuridine, CldU, IdU)
• Label cells at a specific time of gestation – dividing cells will incorporate the label • their progeny will have progressively weaker signals
• Stop experiment at a specified time – labeled cells were born when label added and have migrated and differentiated.
Determination and Differentiation • What’s the difference? – determination precedes differentiation – studied by transplanting tissue from one animal into another of a different ageaxolotl and “fate mapping”c. elegans • results show that there are developmental “windows”periods during which development is influenced by the environment
• Generation of distinct neuronal phenotypes (morphology, neurotransmitter content, receptor profile, connectivity) depends on: – when cells were born – where cells were born
• How does this happen?
– cellcell contact – transcription factors – growth factor gradients
Examples of factors that control development • Neural Induction
– bFGF, noggin, chordin
• Polarization
– shh, notch, TGFβ (BMP’s)
• Segmentation – wnt, hox
• Neurogenesis/gliogenesis – BMPs, bHLH, notch
• Migration – nCAM
• Differentiation – CNTF, PDGF
How do neurons/astrocytes/oligo’s develop?
www.ucl.ac.uk/.../ Richardsonglial.htm
How do oligodendroglia develop?
PDGFRa + oligodendrocyte progenitors in the embryonic mouse forebrain. In the forebrain (lower left), a cluster of PDGFRa +cells appears in the ventral diencephalon (anterior hypothalamic neuroepithelium) before E13 (arrow). These cells subsequently proliferate and migrate into the dorsal forebrain including the developing cortex (Cx) before birth (not shown). At higher magnification (lower right) it can be seen that the migratory cells are intensely labelled PDGFRa + cells (arrows) that develop within the initial cluster of less strongly labelled neuroepithelial cells (asterisk). MGE, medial ganglionic eminence; LGE, lateral ganglionic eminence.
www.ucl.ac.uk/.../ Richardsonglial.htm
The Spinal Cord develops from the neural tube
The cells of the neural tube form three layers, a ventricular layer of undifferentiated, proliferating cells, a mantle layer of differentiating neurons that will form the gray matter of the spinal cord, and a marginal layer that contains nerve fibers and will be the white matter. The dorsal portion of the neural tube is termed the alar plate and forms the sensory area; the ventral portion is termed the basal plate and forms the motor area of the spinal cord. http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/
Development of dorsal root ganglia and motor neurons
Motor axons grow out from the neurons in the basal plate, while cells in the dorsal root ganglia extend sensory fibers both centrally and peripherally.
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/
Myelencephalon: Medulla
E14 mouse--9 week human A cut through the myelencephalon illustrates the thin roof plate as well as the alar and basal plate regions, all of which surround the lumen, which at this level forms the fourth ventricle of the brain. http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/nerv_htms/nerv016.htm
Metencephalon: Cerebellum
Species: Mouse Day Gestation: 11 Approx. Human Age: 6 weeks
A dorsal view of the hindbrain, following removal of the thin roof of the fourth ventricle, illustrates the cerebellar plate.
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/nerv_htms/nerv016.htm
Cerebellum • Controlled by isthmic organizer at border between mesencephalon and metencephalon (R1) – FGF8 and wnt1 are expressed here
• Rhombic lip of metencephalon cells migrate here, and each side joins over the 4th ventricle
– Purkinje cells and deep cerebellar nuclei born first – External granule cell layer (EGL) born later and migrate internally through the Purkinje cell layer to the internal granule cell layer (IGL) – Cerebellum continues to develop after birth • months/years in humans • differs with the need to ambulatehorse cerebellum develops at a more accelerated pace than humans
Cerebellum Species: Mouse Day Gestation: 14 Approx. Human Age: 9 weeks View: Sagittal Cut
The relationship of the cerebellar plate to the choroid plexus, projecting into the roof of the fourth ventricle. http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/nerv_htms/nerv016.htm
Migration
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Radial glia
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Layered structures generally develop insideout newer neurons migrate through older, deeper layers
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cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, spinal cord (not present in all brain areas) span the pial to lumenal surface and act as scaffolds on which postmitotic neurons can climb to their destinations
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however, neurons can also migrate tangentiallye.g. cortex (Cepko)
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Growth factors (bFGFHatten) Cell adhesion molecules (CAM’s) Extracellular matrix (laminin, Slaminin) Most of these factors also participate in axonal growth
Molecules that participate in migration
Midbrain • Develops from midbrain vesicle • Cavity shrinks to form cerebral aqueduct • Tectumalar plate dorsal to aqueduct – gives rise to superior and inferior colliculi
• Tegmentumbasal plate (ventral)
– gives rise to 3rd and 4th cranial nerves, red nuclei, substantia nigra, reticular formation
• Basis pedunculi bulge out carrying corticofugal fiber tracts
Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus
Mouse E 14 , Approx. Human Age: 9 weeks
Optic vesicle is at the junction between telencephalon and diencephalon Alar plate gives rise to thalamus and hypothalamus, but note that not all thalamic neurons originate from the diencephalone.g. pulvinar nucleus (from telencephalon). http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/
Cerebral Cortex, Hippocampus, and Basal Ganglia
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_im ages/unitnervous/
Expnding cerebral hemispheres surrounding the lateral ventricles arise at the beginning of the 5th week. Choroid plexus is formed by invading vascular mesoderm Ganglionic eminence gives rise to basal ganglia Lateral thickening (not shown) gives rise to hippocampus
Cerebral Cortex • Cells derived from dorsal prosencephalon (cortical rudiment), and the “ganglionic eminence”, which also gives rise to the basal ganglia • 6 layers • New neurons migrate through layers of older neurons – Development is “inside out” – Extensive enlargement from vesicle stage – Sulci and gyri are formed by uneven proliferation rates
Cerebral Cortex
The rostralmost portion of the prosencephalon, the telencephalon, expands posteriorly and laterally as the cerebral hemispheres.
http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/
Cerebral Cortex
With further expansion, the cereberal hemispheres cover the lateral aspect of the diencephalon, mesencephalon and the rostral portion of the metencephalon.
Development of Commissures • Anterior commissure develops first, connecting olfactory bulbs and temporal cortices on both sides • Next, the fornix, connecting hippocampi • The corpus callosum develops third, connecting the frontal lobes of both sides, and later, the parietal lobes
Pituitary
The adenohypophysis (anterior lobe) is derived from the stomodeum, called Rathke's Pouch and the neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) is derived from the infundibulum in the diencephalon. http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unitnervous/nerv_htms/nerv016.htm
Synaptogenesis • Axonal/dendritic growth • Pre and postsynaptic specialization • Synaptic reinforcement
Axonal growth • First observed by Harrison in early 1900’s • Initiated by axonal growth cone –Axon
• growth requires extension of cytoskeleton • tubulin organized into microtubules
–Lamelipodium
• sheetlike structure • tubulin monomers • Gactin
http://www.mcgill.ca/crn/images/
–Filipodia
• processes that grow out from lamelipodium • Factin
• These structures search for cues provided by pioneer neurons or extracellular environment
–cell adhesion molecules, transcription factors, extracellular matrix –partial decussation of retinal axons is www2.umdnj.edu/ established in the retina and reinforced by zhlabweb/overview.ht glia in the optic chiasm. m
www.anatomy.unimelb.edu.au
What governs axonal growth? •
Involve neuronneuron, neuronglia, and neuronmesenchymal cell interactions either directly, or via secreted molecules – Extracellular matrix/Integrins
• Laminins, collagens, and fibronectin form polymers • Integrins bind laminins, etc., and signal intracellular messengers (Ca, IP3, kinases)
– Cell adhesion molecules
• CAM’s (Ca independent, L1, act through cytoplasmic PK’s) and cadherins (Ca dependent; APC/betacatenin pathway). • Present on axons, growth cones, and neighboring cells • Serve as ligands and receptors
– Ephrins/receptors – “tropic” factors: factors that attract axonal growth, also factors that repel
• Netrinshomology to extracellular matrix molecules, but attached to cellsreceptors (DCCdeleted in colorectal cancer)localized to floorplatedefine the midline, encouraging some axons to cross
– Repellant factors:
• slit and robo • NoGoa component of myelin that inhibits axonal growth into sites of injury • Semaphorins/receptors include plexins and neuropilinscause collapse and retraction of growth cones
Types of Growth Factors
From Purves
How do synapses interact with appropriate targets? • “Chemoaffinity hypothesis”
– developed in fish retinotectal projections by Sperry
• axons from retinal ganglion cells possess specific receptors for target molecules on specific cells in superior colliculus
• Target identification is actually achieved by concentration gradients of ephrins in targets and receptors (tyrosine kinases) on incoming axons – repulsive axon guidance signals (RAGS) are also ephrins – commissures – neural crest
Synapse Formation • How do sympathetic afferents synapse on appropriate targets? – “should I stay or should I go?”
• Enervation is somewhat plastic
– “love the one you’re with” (relative promiscuity)
• Choice of enervation mediated by cell adhesion molecules
– ephrins, cadherins (positive and negative) – DSCAM38,000 isoforms (protocadherins in mammals?) – agrins (proteoglycans), basal laminasynaptic specializations can form in the absence of either cellular component (neuromuscular junctions), also β2− laminin
• Postsynaptic specialization
– mediated by agrin (secreted by presynaptic elements) – Target cells reciprocate by secreting β2laminins
Synaptic Modeling •Refinement is needed to establish the right number of synapses –Synaptic “competition,” requiring synaptic activity • Asynchronous input is eliminated destabilized • One axon “wins” and “takes over” the target • All targets are correctly enervated – convergence vs. divergence (1 to 100,000) – affects axonal and dendritic morphology
•Remodeling continues throughout life •Neurotrophic factors are involved
NGF • Identified by Rita LeviMontalcini (in Hamburger’s lab) in 1950’s found that sarcoma tumor cells supported growth of sympathetic neurons and sensory ganglia • Pleiotrophic functions: differentiation, growth, survival in vitro and function in vivo • Role in development established definitively by applying exogenous factor, immunoneutralization, demonstrating NGF mRNA in target, and localizing NGF receptors to neurons – Note that NGF is expressed after axons project to their targets
• One member of neurotrophin family (BDNF, NT3, NT4/5) that act on different sets of neurons(e.g. NGF/sympathetic; BDNF/sensory) • Other families: EGF, neuregulins, FGF, TGF−β (GDNF), etc. etc. • Expressed in neuronal, neural, and nonneural tissue
How neurotrophic factors work • Bind to extracellular receptors (for neurotrophins: Trks and p75) – Tyrosine/serine/threonine kinases – activate cellular signal transduction cascades (other kinases, etc.)
• Short term effects directly in cytoplasm (activating or deactivating other receptors, cytoskeletal changes) • Longer effects on patterns of gene expressionvia kinases and transcription factors • Hypothesis: deficiency in neurotrophic factors lead to neurodegenerative diseases (S. Appel)
Neurotrophins act on exclusive neuronal subpopulations
Neurotrophin receptors • p75 receptor mediates cell death (interacts with sortilin and pro NGF) • Trk receptors mediate neurotrophic effects (survival, differentiation)
www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/ potm/2005_8/Page.htm
TrkA Receptor
SIGMA-ALDRICH
Developmental/Programmed Cell Death • The original scientists who discovered apoptosis coined this term meaning literally a "falling off," as the petals fall off a flower or the leaves fall from a tree. The cell death machinery is a set of genes which stand ever ready to selfdestruct. • Active processsuiciderequires gene expression • Mediated by neurotrophic factors – Limited availability imposes a competition for survival
Programmed Cell Death
SIGMA-ALDRICH
Windows of specific aspects of development
Critical periods
Developmental Events/Abnormalities GESTATIONAL AGE 24 - 26 days 26 - 28 days 33 - 35 days 1 - 5.5 months 1 month - postnatal 3 - 5 months 2.5 - 4.5 months 2.5 - 5 months 5 months - 1 year postnatal 7-9 months
DEVELOPMENTAL EVENT anterior neuropore closure posterior neuropore closure five vesicle stage neuronal proliferation neuronal migration corpus callosum primary cerebral fissures glial proliferation secondary and tertiary fissures
RELATED DEFECTS anencephaly spina bifida holoprosencephaly microcephaly migrational defects agenesis of corpus collosum lissencephaly microcephaly pachygyria
Mutations in genes that control development cause a wide range of syndromes • Hydrocephalus
– X chromosome (L1)
• FragileX
– trinucleotide repeats in fragile X protein, destabilizing dendrites and synapses
• Aniridia (affects eye development), and Waardenburg syndrome – PAX6 and PA3, which encode transcription factors
• Autism
– wnt mutations
• Down’s syndrome – trisomy 21
• Schizophrenia?
– heregulin gene (growth factor)
Agents that affect brain development • • • •
thyroid hormone alcohol thalidomide retinoic aciddeficiency or surplus causes developmental defects
Myelination • PNS myelinated by Schwann cells • CNS myelinated by oligodendroglia • In spinal cord
– begins at cervical region at 4 months of gestation, proceeding caudally
• In brain
begins at 6 months in the basal ganglia myelinated sensory fibers enter from the spinal cord Brain is largely unmyelinated at birth Infant movement restricted to mostly reflexes, like sucking, respiration, and swallowing – After birth, corticofugal fibers begin to myelinate – Myelination may not be finished until puberty – – – –
Postnatal Development • Majority of brain development (morphological and histological) happens before birth but…. • Postnatal development includes important events: – – – – – –
Neurogenesis in cerebellum Neuronal migration Synaptic pruning Programmed cell death Myelination Synaptic plasticity (learning)
Brain Repair? • Neurotrophic factor therapy – AD, ALS, PD – Spinal cord injury, stroke
• Stem cell transplants – Need to differentiate – Brain tumors….
• Endogenous stem cells
– Ability to divide and replenish their supply – Can give rise to astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and neurons – Neuronal precursors are post mitotic
Neural Stem Cells are Present in Mature Human Brain
• • •
EGFreceptor antibodies identify neural stem cells Some of these cells possess markers for the neuronal phenotype from Dr. Cynthia ShannonWeickert, Journal of Comparative Neurology, 2000
Neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases may be stem cell diseases The adult neural stem and progenitor cell niche is altered in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis mouse brain Z Liu and LJ Martin, J Comp Neurol (2006) 497:468488 Neural stem cell proliferation is decreased in schizophrenia, but not in depression A Reif, S Fritzen, M Finger, A Strobel, M Lauer, A Schmitt and KP Lesch, Mol Psych (2006) 11:514–522
Do we ever stop developing?
I hope not.
Thank you