Carbthesnew

An Honors Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements of Honors Studies in Architecture

Investigation into the Potential Application of Carbon Fiber Composites upon Architecture, Design, and Construction.

Benjamin Smith Emanuelson

Thesis Directors: Dr. Ethel Goodstein-Murphree Dr. Tahar Messadi

Spring 2006 School of Architecture University of Arkansas, Fayetteville

2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dr. Ethel Goodstein-Murphree University of Arkansas School of Architecture [email protected] Dr.Tahar Messadi University of Arkansas School of Architecture [email protected] Joseph Byers Wilson Sporting Goods [email protected] John Davidson MSc Milled Carbon Ltd. www.milledcarbon.com Jeff Engbrecht Toray Carbon Fibers America Inc. [email protected] Masanori Fujii Toray Carbon Fibers Japan [email protected] Todd Johnson Advanced Composites Group [email protected] www.advanced-composites.com Hiroshi Kanesaki Toray Carbon Fibers Japan [email protected] Giovanni Pagnotta www.giovannipagnotta.com Dr. Larry G. Pleimann, P.E. University of Arkansas School of Civil Engineering [email protected] www.cveg.uark.edu/faculty/pleimann David Ratchford Marshall Vega Corp. Bob Rollins Central Flying Service [email protected] www.diamondair.com/ Noradene T. Sorensen Hexcel [email protected] Jamestown Distributors Bristol, Rhode Island

www.jamestowndistributors.com

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Table of Contents Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….….6 I. - Research Scope …………………………………………………………………………………...…..….7 A. Purpose and Objectives…………………………………………………………………………7 B. Approach Method…………………………………………………………………………………..7 Le Corbusier’s Five Canons as Framework for Investigating Potential Application of Carbon Fiber in Architecture………………………………………….……………………………………...7 II – Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………………..7-21 A. Current Applications of Carbon Fiber……………………………………………………7-19 1. Automotive Industry Succinct synthesis focused on the language of form, space, assembly, and structure………………………………………………………………………………7-10

2. Furniture Design Succinct synthesis focused on the language of form, space, assembly, and structure…………………………………………………………………………….10-13

3. Sports Equipment Succinct synthesis focused on the language of form, space, assembly, and structure……………………………………………………………………………….13

4. Developments in the Building Industry……………………………………….14-16 4.1 Design: (the vision of Testa and Others) Analysis of formal, spatial, and structural attributes……………14-15

4.2 Construction Bridge repair………………………………………………………………...15

4.3 Structure Carbon Fiber Rebar in Reinforced Concrete……………………..15-16

5. Industrial Revolution and the Emergence of Le Corbusier’s Architectural Canons………………………………………………………………….16-18 6. Similarities Between Textile Fabrics and Carbon Fiber Production………………………………………….18-19 B. Advantages and Disadvantages of Carbon Fiber Application in the Building Industry………………………………………………..19-21 1. Environmental Cost……………………………………………………………………..19 2. Lightness……………………………………………………………………………………20 3. Speed of Assembly……………………………………………………………………..20

4 4. High Performance……………………………………………………………………20-21 5. Cost…………………………………………………………………………………………..21 III. A Taxonomic Development for Formal, Constructional, and Structural Integration of Carbon Fiber in Architecture…………………………………………………...22-57 A. Characteristic Properties of Carbon Fiber……………………………………………27-31 1. Constituent Elements of Carbon Fiber and their Organizational Pattern: A Parallel to the Textile Fabric………………………………………………………27-28 2. Carbon Fiber Performance Properties and Comparison to other Materials: Wood & Steel for Reference……………………………………...…28-30 3. Formal and Structural Possibilities Associated with Carbon Fiber…………………………………..30-31 3.1 Line……………………………………………………………………………..…30 Straight………………………………………………………………………….…..30 Bent……………………………………………………………………………….…30 3.2 Plane………………………………………………………………………..……30 Straight…………………………………………………………………………..…30 Curvilinear…………………………………………………………………………31 3.3 Volume………………………………………………………………………..…31 Monolithic Shapes: Shells………………………………………………….…31 Trabeated Systems………………………………………………………..……31 B. Prototypes as Recombinants for Carbon Fiber Application in Architecture..32-57 1. System Type: Shell……………………………………………………………….…33-45 1.1. Structure, Enclosure and Assembly for Elemental Forms...33-39 1.1.1 Cube……………………………………………………………………………35 1.1.2 Pyramid…………………………………………………………………….…36 1.1.3 Cylinder……………………………………………………………….………37 1.1.4 Sphere…………………………………………………………………………38 1.1.5 Amorphous……………………………………………………………..……39 1.2. Recombinants: Structure, Enclosure and Assembly…………40-45 1.2.1 Cube + Cube……….…………………………………………………….…40 1.2.2 Cube + Pyramid……….……………………………………………...……40 1.2.3 Cube + Cylinder……….………………………………………………...…41 1.2.4 Cube + Sphere ……….……………………………………………………41 1.2.5 Cube + Amorphous……….………………………………………………42

5 1.2.6 Pyramid + Pyramid……….…………………………………………….…42 1.2.7 Pyramid + Cylinder……….…………………………………………….…43 1.2.8 Pyramid + Sphere……….…………………………………………...……43 1.2.9 Cylinder + Cylinder……….………………………………………………44 1.2.10 Cylinder + Sphere……….………………………………………………44 1.2.11 Amorphous + Amorphous……….……………………………………45 2. System Type: Skeletal……………………………………………………..………46-56 2.1. Structure, Enclosure and Assembly for Elemental Forms…46-50 2.1.1 Cube………………………………………………………………………..…46 2.1.2 Pyramid………………………………………………………………………47 2.1.3 Cylinder………………………………………………………………………48 2.1.4 Sphere…………………………………………………………………..……49 2.1.5 Amorphous……………………………………………………………….…50 2.2. Recombinants: Structure, Enclosure, & Assembly……………….…50-56 2.2.1 Cube + Cube……….………………………………………………………50 2.2.2 Cube + Pyramid……….………………………………………………..…51 2.2.3 Cube + Cylinder……….……………………………………………..……51 2.2.4 Cube + Sphere……….……………………………………………………52 2.2.5 Cube + Amorphous……….………………………………………………52 2.2.6 Pyramid + Pyramid……….…………………………………………….…53 2.2.7 Pyramid + Cylinder……….…………………………………………….…53 2.2.8 Pyramid + Sphere……….……………………………………………...…54 2.2.9 Cylinder + Cylinder……….………………………………………….……54 2.2.10 Cylinder + Sphere……….………………………………………….……55 2.2.11 Sphere + Sphere……….…………………………………………...……55 2.2.12 Amorphous + Amorphous……….……………………………….……56 3. Glazing…………………………………………………………………………..………56-57 3.1. Glazing Materials Comparison: Glass, Polycarbonate, Plastic, Plexi-glass…………………………………………………………………56 3.2. Choice of Glazing……………………………………………………………56 3.3. Installation and Assembly Process……………………………..…56-57 IV. – Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….………57 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………….……58

6 Investigation into the Potential Application of Carbon Fiber Composites upon Architecture, Design and Construction. Architecture is a design-related discipline. To say this is highly controversial, because it hints that, perhaps to be concerned with the human scale and proportion of items is somehow ultra focused. A primary goal throughout research is the narrowing of topics. Research must be focused. If an architect were to attempt to design an entire continent, this could be the epitome of unfocused nonresearch. In this case, the architect would be trying to achieve an elite status of “Master Builder” while possibly denying ownership of craft. The field of Architecture has been related to Art, Sculpture, and Product Design, in every genre throughout our world’s history. Architecture is also related to Science. Because architecture is related to both art and science, it has been labeled as a “Mother Art” throughout the ages. There is a stipulation to this, however. In order for the practice of architecture to retain its place in society as related to art as well as science, it must exist as an ever-learning entity, concerned not only with the ideologies of space, but the evolution of global technology. Hypothetically speaking, if Architectural Design were to convert into constant rearrangement of landmass, such as is noted at Robert Smithson’s “Spiral Jetty,” or what occurs as a natural consequence of earthquakes, Architectural Design would in fact cease to be a “Mother Art.” It would cease to be a “Mother Art” as a result of ignoring Scientific Innovation altogether. Le Corbusier is widely considered throughout the international world to be the founder of Modern Architecture and design. This is attributed to Le Corbusier’s contributions to Art and Design, from the extensive studies of Human proportions (le Modulor) and their place in architectural Design, to the Five points of Modern Architecture. It could be argued, that Le Corbusier’s transition from designer of the quasi-traditional “Youthful Folly” La Chaux de Fonds to propagator of the ultra minimal Villa Savoye at Poissy-Sur-Seine, France, was a direct result of wholehearted adoption of the “Engineering Aesthetic.” Le Corbusier advocated the study of engineering models such as Automobiles and highly complex machines. From this type of analysis, Le Corbusier discovered that the engineering aesthetic was in fact an aesthetic of efficiency and complete removal of the nonessential. Le Corbusier, stated that Architectural Design was currently in “an unhappy state of retrogression.” Le Corbusier was, in a sense, arguing that engineering had become the new “Mother Art,” and that architecture was currently bound by tradition. This thesis examines the contrast between how architects produce space, versus how engineers produce space. Technology has recently polarized the two, in fact, through the use of advanced composite materials and Digital Finite Element Analysis. Before Digital Finite Element Analysis, it was only possible to engineer a structure with homogeneous materials such as metal or stone. The recent advances in digital processing and increased numerical calculation have led to the design of not only structures themselves, but also the materials, which constitute those structures. If the Modernists viewed ornament as “excess architectural baggage,” then it can be argued that Modernism was grounded in a desire for structural lightness and efficiency. Engineering, (by means of Digital Finite Element Analysis and Carbon Fiber Composite (engineered) Materials) has discovered a new constructional efficiency. This Thesis is not about “what if Carbon Fiber Composite materials were used to make a structure.” Carbon Fiber structures are everywhere. Carbon Fiber is responsible for the most efficient structures in the world. This thesis examines the current existence and production of Carbon Fiber Composite Materials and structures in the same way that Le Corbusier examined the most advanced processes of the Industrial Revolution. The Information Age has evolved into a constant Technological revolution. Humanity is once again at the turn of another Century.

7 I. - Research Scope A. Purpose and Objectives The purpose of this research is to investigate processes and methods involved with the application of Carbon Fiber Composite material in order to edify comprehensive formal, constructional and structural taxonomies and guidelines aimed at building design. This Thesis has very specific objectives for the application to Design Disciplines. Applied Research Within the Applied Research, other, potentially more architectural objectives were pursued. 1. It is necessary to study how Carbon Fiber is currently used in Automotive Design, Furniture Design, and Sports Equipment Design, as these are influenced most by Human Proportion. 2. It is necessary to study how Carbon Fiber is currently used in Building Construction, and how its tactile properties can further influence this advent. 3. The Final objective of this thesis is to pursue design and fabrication of Architectural & spatial assembly.

B. Approach Method The knowledge gained from the literature review is instrumental in the development of the proposed approach. First, the understanding of the processes involved in the application of carbon fiber in other industries serve as the springboard for developing parallel procedures for the building industry. Second, Le Corbusier’s five canons represent the framework to illustrate the application of the proposed taxonomies. This Thesis is based on a highly specific approach. That approach is defined as examining existing Carbon Fiber Precedents, and applying that found knowledge to Architectural Design. The knowledge obtained, either relative to Space, Form, or Assembly is further applied to Architecture. As an Architectural application, Le Corbusier’s five points of Modern Architecture further influence the Carbon Fiber prototypes in terms of: 1. Structural Grid/Supports 2. Free Ground Floor 3. Ribbon Windows 4. Free Façade 5. Roof Garden

II – Literature Review A. Current Applications of Carbon Fiber Carbon Fiber has become a prevalent constructing material in almost every genre of product design in the world; therefore, it is necessary to analyze in depth the properties and qualities of Carbon Fiber and the way it is currently used. The story of technological advancement within the automotive industry is marked with increasingly dominant use of Carbon Fiber. This is also becoming true of the Furniture and Sporting Goods industries. In Architecture, materiality and assembly of complex constructional systems are the basis of spatial generation.

1. Automotive Industry It is necessary to look to what many consider the “Masters” of Carbon Fiber Engineering, BMW, Ferrari, McLaren, Mercedes, and Porsche. An automobile faces many challenges in the traversal of the landscape, and these companies have done a very fine job of handling those challenges in automotive designs. It is necessary to analyze Language of Form, Space, Assembly, and Structure of these models.

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BMW The Language of Form of the BMW Sauber Formula One racecar is that of incredible dynamic curvature. As the vehicle is propelled with an engine that is located behind the driver, engine Intake air must move along the sides and top of the car in large ducts. Much of the form of the car’s body is devoted to air movement either 1: into the engine, or 2: over the car. “Wings” are located on the front and the back of the car, and these are for aerodynamic and traction purposes. “Wings” help to move air around the car as well as use air pressure to push tires downward. A Formula One Car possesses an aerodynamic down force that is equal to or greater than its weight, and this is one of the primary reasons for tire failure in 2005. Formally, a car of this type can be thought of as a framework between wheels with a total lack of superfluity. Space within and around the BMW Sauber car exists as pockets and tunnels. The Carbon Fiber “survival cell” in this car can even be thought of as a type of tunnel. The space in this type of car is very compact. The Formula One racecar utilizes all types of advanced Assembly procedures. The Method used most, of course, is that of Carbon Fiber Lamination. Any portion of the F1 racecar body could contain 30 layers of Carbon Fiber fabric or more. The car also uses prefabricated elements such as suspension arms or brake ducts. The wheels are the foundation for the car as a structure. The connection between the solid survival/cell body and its wheels is by means of Carbon Fiber linear truss arms. The structure of this car is the result of fine-tuning with Digital Finite Element Analysis. Every individual aspect is slightly redesigned every season.

Ferrari The Language of Form utilized by Ferrari is highly specific to Ferrari. Ferrari can be credited most with the transfer of technology from the auto-racing genre to the commercial automobile market. The Ferrari Enzo is an automobile that is worth over $1 million and, while existing as a publicly accessible automobile, borrows a great deal of technology from the Ferrari Formula One racecar which is, like all Formula One racecars completely revised every racing season. Form is directly influenced by aerodynamic design parameters as well as traditional Ferrari styling cues. Ferrari automobiles, though highly curvilinear will at times reference the orthogonal as an unwritten rule. Space in a Ferrari exists in the Interior where people inhabit, or the engine bay, which is arguably the most important space of the automobile. There is also space in wheel housings and in a front storage compartment. There is also a very flat discreet space that makes up the void between the underside of the car and the road surface. Assembly of a Ferrari involves intricate forming of complex carbon fiber volumes and planar elements. Parts and pieces are fabricated, and added to one another in a highly intricate process. Other panels such as doors and lids are added to the primary structure or the vehicle. Structure in a Ferrari is achieved by means of Carbon Fiber lamination combined with either Carbon Fiber suspension components or metallic components. As of now, metal is still used for engine blocks, transaxles, or gearboxes, but Carbon fiber has begun to replace these parts as well.

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McLaren The McLaren F1 is considered to be the first full Carbon Fiber production car, as 107 were produced beginning in 1993. Though McLaren now collaborates with Mercedes, the McLaren F1 is powered with a BMW V12 engine. Until recently, this car also held the record for “world’s fastest production road car” until th beaten by another full Carbon Fiber car (the Koenigsegg CCR) on February 28 2005. The McLaren F1 is also credited with inspiring Ralph Lauren to design the CF-1 chair (below). The Language of Form of the McLaren F1 is more curvilinear than almost any contemporary Ferrari. Every surface is in fact more round. The McLaren F1 is also related to the Formula One Car in that its driver is placed centrally in the interior with a passenger seat on each side. (In a Ferrari Enzo, the driver is on one side or the other.) Space in the McLaren F1 is very similar to space in the Ferrari Enzo, however Luggage is stored on the sides of the car in front of the rear wheels, instead of in single front compartment. Assembly is the perfect synthesis of millions of individual parts combined with Carbon Fiber Lamination. Structure is that of full Carbon Fiber Monocoque construction.

Mercedes The Language of Form of the Mercedes McLaren SLR is very different from the other automobiles listed because it has its engine in front of the driver, as opposed to behind. The SLR is stretched as a result, and the rear luggage compartment is much smaller. Space in the SLR McLaren is more expansive than in the Ferrari or McLaren F1. The front engine is one of the main reasons for increased passenger space, and decreased storage space. The Mercedes SLR is produced in a facility designed by Norman Foster. The Automobiles are moved on individual rolling mechanisms, and not assembly lines. Great care is put into these automobiles, as evidenced by engines that are signed by an individual craftsperson that is to account for its eventual future performance. The Structure of the SLR is Carbon Fiber Monocoque and internal structure becomes external surface more so than in the Porsche Carrera GT where structure is divided from exterior.

10 Porsche The Language of Form inherent in the Porsche Carrera GT is, of course, derived from a long tradition of formally resolved Porsche Automotive styling that is credited to its founder, Ferdinand Porsche. The Porsche is less compact compared to other Porsche automobiles in terms of overall volume. The Carrera GT is also more planar compared to other Carbon Fiber Cars, like the Ferrari Enzo. Space in a Carrera GT occurs not only in the Cargo compartment, the passenger seating compartment, engine bay or wheel housings, but also in an interstitial between Carbon Fiber Monocoque structure and Carbon Fiber Body/shell. Assembly of the Carrera GT is achieved on a very specialized process that is more involved than the process utilized for a normal passenger vehicle. Structure is achieved through pairing of Carbon Fiber monocoque skeletal front and rear halves, which accept other components such as rear engine, suspension, or outer surface.

2. Furniture Design

Alberto Meda Furniture Line, Square, Rectangle, Line. The Language of Form in the carbon furniture by Alberto Meda is that of skeletal linearity transforming into plane. Form is greatly influenced by rough surfaces. In a sense, plane is stretched at the edges into linearity. Space and void appears to support the primary planar surface, as well as extending arms. Thinness in supports emphasizes the role of space. Assembly is quite simply the laminating of many layers of fabric combined with the use of external supporting devices. Structure occurs as the result of many laminated fabric layers alternating from planar to linear and back once again. Structurally the furniture begins as linear, transforms into planar, and becomes once again linear at extremity.

Mathias Bengtsson Carbon Chaise The Language of Form utilized by Bengtsson is amorphous curvilinearity. Bengtsson uses moiré and framework translucency like Wanders & Pot (below). The Space is defined with overlapping graphite volume cross-hatching exactly like the Wanders & Pot design without multiplied lamination. Bengtsson is less focused on the notion of edge or angle. Moire is utilized for the constant shadow play upon backdrop. The Assembly of this item is, once again, very straightforward. It is the clear continuance of a single strand in space, defining a volume.

11 Bengtsson approaches Structure with the single resin/carbon strand continuing around a void. Compression in the way an architrave might use compression is called upon more so in this item.

Ron Arad Furniture Arad approaches Language of Form from different directions. While one item may be an arced & selfabsorbed infinity symbol, another exists as curved planes or an unraveled roll. Arad makes note of the rolled aspect of carbon in a theatrical sense, or relies on solid mass. Space for Arad seems to be confined by boundaries. Other designers are about solid and void interlock where Arad is about clearly defined solids and voids. Assembly is the fastening of curved planes with bolts or solidification though resin with the aim of unraveling or infinitum. The Structural consideration is more complex, and similar to something automotive, where a solid object or surface curves and alternates.

Ralph Lauren CF-1 chair Though Lauren admits to being inspired by the McLaren F1 Racing car (above), the CF-1 chair follows an international (quasi-Breuer Wassily) Language of Form that is highly orthogonal. Formally, the CF-1 resembles a C that has been cut out of a large “C” channel. The seating function is supported and tilted at center and covered in leather. This chair shares an idea with other chairs, and that idea is the continuity of a single component. Space is highly important for this example, as void appears to support the mass of the item. The space contests however in the struggle between a surface of leather and a surface of Carbon. Assembly occurs as a union of flat meandering frame and seating surfaces. The Structure of this particular chair can be defined as orthogonal redirection of a flat regularized plate around a central seating component.

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Giovanni Pagnotta Furniture Giovanni Pagnotta is hailed internationally and boasts status as one of the “Surface Ten Avante Garde” Designers. Pagnotta designs by far the most extensive line of Carbon Fiber Furniture. The Language of Form inherent in the carbon fiber furniture of Giovanni Pagnotta is that of laminated flat and curved planar surfaces, which appear to float in space. At first glance the tables, chairs, and lounges appear as wide extrusions, which defy gravity and utilize a curvature that is very slight or very extreme. The Structural use of Carbon Fiber in this furniture is lamination for the purposes of cantilever and ultra thin spanning planar surfaces. Space in the Pagnotta furniture is solid and forces the focused mass of the planar surfaces to a maximum thinness. The gloss of surface enhances reflection and mirroring of space. The Assembly of chairs and lounges such as the z™, 2496™, or 3726™ is achieved by laminating differing amounts of carbon fiber cloth between formwork with pressure.

Frank Stella Carbon Fiber Sculptures The Language of Form utilized by Frank Stella is one of spiraling disarray and apparent randomness. The logic is very ephemeral as the Stella carbon sculptures consist of ornamental trusses, rods, and curved planes. Space is amorphous and swirled, turning ever back on itself. Form, Space, and Structure interweave toward complete non-definition. Assembly is the painstaking result of welding metal frameworks and further connecting Carbon Fiber armatures. The Structure of the sculptures is a combination of Carbon Fiber and Metals. Panels and curvature as well as intricate lattice make up the general scheme of this artwork.

Marcel Wanders & Bertjan Pot: Carbon Copy Chair & Random Chair The Language of Form of the furniture of Wanders & Pot is derived from the Eames fiberglass furniture of postwar Modernism. The approach that this design team brings forth is that of moiré translucency

13 combined with resolved volume. Formally, this furniture is mostly concerned with the evolution of the strand from line to surface. Spatially, one chair is simply a container for void much like the Bengtsson Model. In the “Carbon Copy,” a tapered rectilinearity contrasts with curvature utilized in the welcoming of human proportion. The Assembly in these chairs is very minimal in its philosophy. The approach is a layering and overlapping of individual resin/carbon strands. At edges, there is opacity. The notion of frame and surface are consistent. As Structures, The Wanders & Pot furniture is a constructional treatise on the constant overlapping of strand. The graphite strand is treated as a graphite sketch in space, and linear strand makes surface structure as ”cross-hatching” of mass.

3. Sports Equipment

Bicycles & Racquets: The Language of Form inherent in Bicycles and tennis racquets is very similar. In Carbon tennis racquets, a continuous beam encircles a void as a ring. This ring supports synthetic strings with very high tension. There is a linear void, which starts at the base of a racquet and continues around the ring back to the base. As a frame, the racquet encircles two large voids. Bicycles are similarly linear and hollow, except that they have very flat disc or framework wheels. Both tennis racquets and Bicycles resemble an organic Bone Structure very closely. The Space produced by these objects can be divided into one of two categories, namely, that of hollow corridor, or vast expansive void. The Assembly involves a layering process onto the armature, followed by casting in a CNC routed double layer form bed. Once removed, the surfaces are polished and sometimes painted, and finishing elements such as ferrules, cables, strings, or metallic bearings are finally added. The Structure of Carbon Racquets and Bicycles is very complex and requires Digital Finite Element Analysis in the engineering phase. Often the structure is achieved by adding strands or cloth to a lightweight armature, which can contain varying amounts of air pressure. The strands vary in direction and layering pattern as well as thickness. Once again, the vocabulary is very similar to an organic bone structure with regard to varying thickness. Other leather, metallic, or plastic elements are finally added to the Carbon when complete.

14 4. Developments in the Building Industry: 4.1 Design: (the Vision of Peter Testa and others) Many designers are beginning to think about Carbon Fiber Composite Materials in Architecture and Design, as evidenced by the numerous furniture items designed and released in the last couple of years. For instance, Giovanni Pagnotta is a furniture designer who sees future possibilities for Carbon Fiber as is evidenced by this particular quote; ”Carbon fiber in Architecture? My response to that should be obvious, advanced composites will change design - there is no doubt. My work, past, present, and future, is based on that assumption.” “As you can see, no one needs to convince me of the attributes regarding carbon fiber or advanced materials.” “Should an opportunity to design a (Carbon Fiber) building come along, I won't let it pass by.” -Architect / Industrial Designer Giovanni Pagnotta Above: This statement succeeded the fall 2003 publication of Peter Testa’s Carbon Tower on the cover of “Architectural Record INNOVATION.” 10 days later, on February 15, C.C. Sullivan of “architecture” wrote an article entitled “Of Carbon Towers and Structural Wallpaper,” in which he alluded to the cost and heat response of Carbon composites. (C. C. Sullivan had written before on the carbon fiber work at Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater,) (“architecture,” September, 2002)

The Carbon Fiber tower by Architect Peter Testa of Emergent Design Group was a conceptual design featured in the fall 2003 Architectural Record INNOVATION. The tower was published and hailed in a way very similar to Mies Van Der Rohe’s Freidrichstrasse skyscraper. The tower was not intended for a specific site or the embodiment of specific program. The tower was intended to display properties of Carbon Fiber Composite Materials and their attributes. A Large model was built, and many renderings were displayed. The Tower was highlighted in other publications such as METROPOLIS, etc. The tower serves as the predominant architectural precedent, however conceptual, displaying a potential use for Carbon Fiber in Architecture.

Analysis of Formal AttributesThe Tower formally resembles a giant spool, encircling a vertical atrium space containing dual vertical shafts. At the base, the spool formally unravels, allowing for entrance into the mass of the building. The encircling tubes alternate in terms of distance from one another. Formally the tower resembles both a spool of carbon fiber as well as an item from Carbon Nanotechnology where Fullerenes and Nanotubes exist within other larger hollow Nanotubes.

15 Analysis of Spatial AttributesThe primary spatial attributes of the tower are linear. Procession is through linear tunnels spiraling to the top around a central vertical atrium space. There are central vertical linear towers as well for potential vertical circulation. Procession through the extensive spiraling tunnel is accompanied with an opaque floor surface, paired with mesh walls intended for light penetration. Light infiltration occurs as a result of fiber spaced apart where transparency occurs at the interstitial between fibers. At all times, it is possible to view the central vertical atrium and its vertical shafts.

Analysis of Structural AttributesThe tower has an obvious lightness to it. Structurally, the tower contains two central vertical Carbon mesh shafts. These dual shafts have limited connection to the exterior framework. The central Vertical Atrium is bound with a tubelike open latticework. At the peripheral exterior layer, which makes up the large amount of the mass of the building, the most density is evident. A giant hollow spring type form contains the major portion of the program, which spirals vertically. The structural cross-section of the spiraling “program ramp-tube” is roughly a curvilinear hexagon with a simple floor. The structural system of the exterior skin is a transparent surface, containing individual fibers in a crossing pattern, in order for translucency to be achieved.

4.2 Construction: Carbon Fiber Rebar has gained vast acceptance, but before Carbon Rebar in concrete, numerous engineers throughout the world were utilizing laminated Carbon Fiber for the repair of existing concrete and masonry structures. The process is relatively simple. A layer of epoxy resin is applied to the concrete surface, and then carbon fiber cloth is added to the epoxy. This method has proven to be very successful for foundation walls and columns of buildings in seismic zones, and for corroded bridges and structures. The advantage of Carbon Fiber in this case is infinite fatigue life, and less eventual stretching and weight compared to steel plate. Indeed, the possibilities of Carbon Fiber rebar systems seem endless. One of the great advantages to using Carbon Fiber in Concrete as opposed to steel is limited ultimate tensile elongation. Steel is capable of elongation in excess of 6%, whereas Carbon Fiber can have an elongation as low or lower than 1.5%. This also contributes to reduced deflection. There are many companies working with Carbon Fiber reinforcing. One such company is INTRON Technologies INC. INTRON, focusing mainly on concrete restoration, states on their website (http://www.introntech.com) that: “Carbon Fiber Reinforcing Polymer Strips are a proven method of providing structural strengthening that is lighter, non-corrosive, and less labor intensive than the application of steel plate or exterior posttensioning” “Lightweight carbon fiber strips can provide ten times the tensile strength of steel.” “We are committed to providing the…most durable, long-term solution that is available.” In addition to contemporary repairs, Carbon Fiber Composites have proven to add immense structural integrity to many existing Masonry buildings that were not originally designed with tensile reinforcement, especially in Italy. In Italy, Carbon Fiber technologies have helped to add integrity to many historic landmarks. Carbon Fiber has been applied to the surfaces and perimeters of domes, load bearing and retaining walls, and as concrete and wood beam & column retrofit reinforcing.

4.3 Structure In an article entitled “Carbon Fiber Precast Practicalities,” (the Construction Specifier, March 2006) many of the advantages of Carbon Fiber are highlighted, namely; reduced construction time, less amount of required concrete, and improved sustainability. It is arguable that the current methods involved with standard concrete construction have some drawbacks. Billions of dollars are spent annually repairing and assessing existing civil engineering projects. One of the main problems with steel reinforced concrete is the absorption of water and moisture into concrete, leading to rusting and corroding of steel rebar. This condition is prevalent in Cold and Coastal Climates. When steel converts into iron oxide

16 (rust), the similar scenario of freezing water in a sealed glass container happens. Fracture of the concrete occurs, and cracked concrete falls away. Civil engineers have worked to combat this problem, by coating rebars with paint or epoxy but these coatings have a limited impact. The use of steel rebar in concrete also means added weight, because an amount of 1.5 inches of concrete cover is normally required as a way to combat corrosion, resulting in 66% more cover than is required with carbon reinforcing. Another drawback of steel rebar is its heavier weight when compared to concrete. Many advances have been made in the development of carbon fiber concrete reinforcing. According to Larry G. Pleimann P.E. Ph.D., a civil engineering professor at the University of Arkansas, Carbon Fiber rebar has proven to be highly superior to steel rebar. This is evident in the recent testing and construction using carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) in concrete bridges in North America and Spain. C-GRID by CARBONCAST is another product on the market, which is simply a commercialized Carbon Fiber/Epoxy rebar with a tensile strength of 550 ksi (seven times that of steel reinforcing). Carbon Fiber rebar allows for a lighter concrete construction because less or no cover is required, and additional reinforcing means less chance of deflection and failure. This is a relatively new phenomenon. (www.altusprecast.com) Also, the adage that concrete and steel have similar thermal expansion properties is not always true. (www.engineeringtoolbox.com) In addition to a NECSO Bridge project in Spain using CFRP rebar, Lawrence Technological University research engineers constructed in Southfield, Michigan, a Carbon Fiber reinforced Bridge completely without steel reinforcing. This bridge utilizes Carbon fiber rebar internally, and 1.6” dia. CFRP post-tensioning cables on its underside. (http://www.cif.org/Nom2003/Nom30_03.pdf ) High strength concrete can have a compressive strength of around 18,000 psi. (333 Wacker Drive, Chicago, Ill.) Carbon composites, however, are capable of over 250,000 psi in compression.

5. Industrial Revolution and the Emergence of Le Corbusier’s Architectural Canons The second image in “Towards a New Architecture” depicts “modern synthetic materials.” Le Corbusier proceeds to proclaim that current architecture is in “an unhappy state of retrogression.” There were many reasons for Le Corbusier to make this statement, as architects at that time were utilizing traditional historicist styles whereas engineers were experimenting scientifically, formally, and aesthetically. He discusses many pictures of factories utilizing modularity, and draws extensively from the lessons of Ocean Liners, Aircraft, and Automobiles, as compared with the scale and order of existing Architectural Icons. Specifically, he references 14 pictures of Ocean Liners, 17 pictures of Aircraft, and 18 pictures of Automobiles. Heavily influenced by the impact of the Industrial Revolution, he utters the famous statement: “The problem of the House has not yet been stated,” and that it is “a machine for living in.” Corbu writes that Phydias, the Egyptians, Euclid, and Pythagoras worked towards “cleanness in execution” similar to that of a Delage front wheel braking assembly. “We must aim at the fixing of standards in order to face the problem of perfection…” Le Corbusier (pg. 128) “If the problem of the dwelling or the flat were studied in the same way that a chassis is, a speedy transformation and improvement would be seen in our houses…” Le Corbusier (pg. 133) In “Urbanisme,” Corbu shows a table representing “Geometry,” divided into “lignes, Surfaces, & Solides.” This is more volumetrically minded than Bernard Tschumi’s experimentation with point, line, and plane. On page 47 of “The Decorative Art of Today,” Le Corbusier writes about the calculation, economy, and fabrication of a monocoque fuselage. “In fact, here is a new craft for which we are unprepared, unequipped.” Le Corbusier

17 Le Corbusier seems to advocate here that architects be equipped and/or prepared to deal with the design of a monocoque fuselage. “we assert without ambiguity that there is no reason why wood should continue to be the essential raw material……”,”If asked, industry will immediately propose new helpmates: steel, aluminum, cement (of a particular specification), fibre, and……the unknown!” Le Corbusier

So, these selections and quotes indicate that Le Corbusier was aware of future evolution in technology and fabrication methods. He did not appear to expect technology to reach a halt at any point in the approaching years. Nowhere does He say, however, for Architects to be cautious of technology, or that architects should only reference engineering to some prescribed degree. Le Corbusier always advocated the adoption of the “engineering aesthetic” as well as any achievable method of standardization. For Le Corbusier, modern architecture is the synthesis of five basic tenets applied to either a single building or urban scheme. It is common for a new architecture to break with certain traditions and carefully prepare for a future approach to building. Some have claimed that the five points are a Modern response to the five Classical Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, & Composite orders. The Five Points are represented most clearly in the Villa Savoye at Poissy-Sur-Seine, France. In the face of the technological and social change, the five points have experienced re-evaluation. st For instance, architectural design in the 21 century has taken a turn away from building typologies that hold their context “at arms length,” in the way that Villa Savoye might appear to. In an age of technology, the five points, like the five orders of Classicism, are continually subjected to evaluation. Possible applications of carbon fiber in response to the five tenets are examined further. Structural grid/supports: Carbon Fiber Composites have the potential to alleviate structural grids and relocate supports to the edges, or one side, or a center. The Maison Domino designed in conjunction with Carbon Fiber could have increased cantilever, and fewer supports. Conventional wisdom has relegated the column grid to parking garages and housing projects. The column grid has a tendency to reduce the interpenetration of natural light into a space, as well as add structural density that carbon fiber could possibly alleviate. Supports, perhaps enclosing vertical circulation, could also allow for the ultimate free plan. Free ground floor: It was intended by Le Corbusier that a free ground floor would allow for parking of automobiles and separation of the built mass from natural ground moisture and humidity. Theoretically, the alleviation of ground level massing allowed for deletion of “Base” in the tri-partite “Base+Column+Capital” motif. Buildings in areas prone to hurricanes and flooding have utilized this concept for centuries. The problem is that it can result “disconnected” architecture. It is beneficial for architecture to display a physical contextual link. This idea also corresponds to a free plan on all levels, which is flexible and advantageous. It is important to note that people view elevation first, section second, and plan last. The plan determines circulation routes, and the section influences visual movement. In alleviating “Base+Column+Capital,” the “upper” and “lower” zones of space are also removed. This sets in motion the conversion of plan to section, floor to wall. Ribbon windows: It is a paradox in modern architecture when linear arrangement of small vertical windows produces a single horizontal transparency. It is also a contradiction to recommend ribbon windows and a free façade simultaneously. Le Corbusier derived many aspects of the Five Points from Ocean Liner engineering. Interestingly, boats float on water horizontally, and buildings rest on land, often vertically. Horizontal windows do allow for the viewing of landscape, and symbiosis between ground plane and vertical surfaces. Free façade: The façade serves a purpose. The façade allows for framing of exterior daytime views and interior nighttime views. The façade protects from adverse weather conditions. The façade optimizes the building mass and provides for succinct situational statement. The façade also allows for opaque necessity. Le Corbusier’s facades are designed around ribbon windows. Carbon Fiber composites and advanced plastics can allow for transparent expanse, and complete volumetric freedom of façade. The Façade can transform into a free plan/elevation, or a landscape. (It would be best to describe the principle of free façade accommodation by Carbon Fiber, i.e., façade freed from the traditional bearing wall, etc.

18 Roof garden: The roof garden is a primary way for Modern Architecture to discard any type of traditional pitched roof in order to allow for lost green space at the ground level to be recuperated at the roof level. Furthermore, the roof garden is also dedicated to domestic activities. The Le Corbusier roof garden is quite distinct from the Mediterranean roof garden framed with pitched roofs. This roof garden st is strictly horizontal. In 21 century architecture, roof gardens are often connected physically to the actual surrounding landscape. In summary, it is arguable (to the contrary) that houses have, in fact stated their problems throughout history. The house has stated problems such as: 1. Difficulty of assembly 2. Flammability 3. Deflection 4. Propensity for ultimate structural collapse 5. Limited cantilever + span capability leading to lack of spatial quality Carbon Fiber Composites can begin to address all of these problems successfully in one way or another.

6. Similarities between Textile Fabrics and Carbon Fiber Production In terms of placing Carbon Fiber fabric on an individual roll or spool, the material is very similar to almost any other type of textile. Carbon fiber is available as a tape (that is an inch wide or more), or as an individual rope or string. Carbon Fiber can also be bought on a 5’ wide roll, like a carpet, for instance. One difference, however is that carbon weaving involves broader radii when compared to more flimsy types of cotton or polyester string. It is possible to produce carbonated fibers through heating and altering basically any kind of cellulosic fiber. The issue, however, is what specific property the produced fiber may or may not have. For instance, a corporation known as “TENAX,” produces thirteen different types of carbon fiber all with varying tensile moduli and strengths. Not all fibers, such as those produced by cotton, for example, are as reliable. Currently, there are three main processes for the production of commercial Carbon Fiber: Viscose RAYON, Petroleum based PITCH, and Polyacrylonitrile precursor fiber modification. A “Precursor” is simply a ‘feedstock’ so to speak, from which a more refined product can be obtained. Heat is an important factor in all of these processes, as heating is necessary in Carbon Fiber production to remove Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. The push for more energy efficient automobiles has led the United States Department of Energy to pursue less expensive Carbon Fiber precursors. For instance, researchers at the Oak Ridge National Laboratories examined Cellulose Lignin modification, which is a by-product of the paper industry. A. Viscose Rayon is produced in a number of phases from wood pulp. Rayon is converted to Carbon Fiber through stabilization, carbonization, and graphitization. B. Petroleum Pitch is converted to Carbon Fiber through Pitch Preparation, Spinning & Drawing, Stabilization, and Carbonization. (http://web.utk.edu/~mse/pages/Textiles/CARBON%20FIBERS.htm) C. Polyacrylonitrile(PAN)(Fig. 1) This process also involves multiple phases. 1. Comonomer+Acrylonitrile+Solvent with a Catalyst enter polymerization. 2. Solution Spinning, Spinning, Rinsing, and Post-treatment further result in PAN precursor. Plastic Polyacrylonitrile(PAN) fiber enters Oxidization(250-350° C in air), and then Carbonization (1000-1500° C in carbon gas). Carbon Fiber is obtained after Surface and Sizing treatment, however Graphite Fiber requires additional Graphitization prior to treatment. (www.tohotenax.com) “Carbonization,” “Oxidization,” or “Graphitization” are phrases which depict a specific treatment of the fiber, in Air, or Inert Carbon Gas.

19

Fig. 1: Production of PAN precursor. Production of Carbon Fiber from PAN (www.tohotenax.com )

These processes have been recorded and diagrammed many times, each time in a slightly different manner. The involvement of heat and industrial mechanisms in the process is quite complex. The listed procedures are slightly more involved than has been displayed, but the purposes shown are for representation, and not instruction.

B. Advantages and Disadvantages of Carbon Fiber Application in the Building Industry

1. Environmental Cost Carbon Fiber Composite materials often utilize a large amount of polymers and plastics. Polymers and plastics are often gained from petroleum or coal feedstock, which is unfortunate. However, Polymer and Plastic products, being lighter, can contribute to vehicles and transport methods that have greater fuel economy. Many experimental solar cars and power generating wind turbines utilize Carbon Fiber Composites because windmills and solar cars, being much less massive, are easier to set in motion. Adrian Beukers and Ed Van Hinte in “Lightness” wrote extensively about a “renaissance of minimum energy structures,” including transport trucks with less weight. Lighter vehicles, made of composite materials, in place of metals, can contribute significantly to greater fuel economy. A building system can contain less embodied energy when it becomes possible to transport a hundred light beams instead of ten heavy beams to any given job site. (Often, however, transport energy is not considered when assigning embodied energy statistics to materials.) Highways and bridges undergo repeated resurfacing due to heavy vehicular traffic. Minimum energy vehicles can theoretically reduce the loading and wear over time of roads and bridges, and so can the transport of minimum energy structures. It is also important to consider that building materials such as Steel, or glass, with low R values will in fact cause a building to have increased heating and cooling costs. Once again, though Carbon Fiber Composite materials utilize petroleum-derived plastics, their properties are able to, at times, be less harmful to the environment than other materials. Information is still, at this point difficult to obtain. “The American Plastics Council (APC) is on the cusp of providing unprecedented cradle to polymer information about many of its plastic resin products. This life cycle assessment inventory (LCI) data, culled from the US and global plastics industry, will soon be published in a publicly accessible database…. like the (UNEP) Life Cycle Initiative, it will ultimately provide the tools for helping achieve a more sustainable world.” Mike Levy, (Modern Materials, Vol. 4 April 2006) This type of documentation will lead to increased sustainability through the publication of polymer lifecycle information. Other committees have studied the positive aspects of Carbon related goods as well. Penn State University has researched the many environmental benefits of these types of products. (www.outreach.psu.edu/C&I/futurecarbons) During a “2005 Research Frontiers Workshop” entitled

20 “Carbons for a Greener Planet,” Carbon products were analyzed in detail in terms of Energy and Hydrogen Storage, Environmental, Electrochemical and Electrical qualities, Hydrogen and Electricity production, Structural applications of Carbon Composites, Nano-Carbon potentials, and finally Economics, Environmental Sustainability, and Health Safety Issues. The workshop highlighted that because many of these industries are in an infant state, pollution prevention, safety and ecology can be considered thoroughly in these beginning phases. The workshop brief stated that ecological compliance is often difficult to apply to established industrial procedures (e.g. steel or lumber mill operation), and “life cycle analysis” notes “that carbon based materials can be more readily recycled or reused than can metal-based counterparts.” Essentially, the Penn State workshop was aimed at the pursuit of a carbon based U.S. Economy, and was sponsored by The American Carbon Society, The Energy Institute, The Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, and the Department of Energy and GeoEnvironmental Engineering. Other studies have shown that Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers should posses an embodied energy in the range of 77-121 MJ/kg, compared to a range of 64-129 MJ/kg for Steel, (possibly higher than CFRP) and 342 MJ/kg for aluminum. The Virginia Energy savers handbook notes plastic production as requiring 6,000 Btu/lb, compared to 14,000 Btu/lb for glass production, 24,000 Btu/lb for steel production, and 126,000 Btu/lb for aluminum production. (Transportation energy excluded) Also, the horizon of recycled carbon products is becoming more visible by means of “Shape Memory” polymers and other recycling processes. John Davidson MSc. Is Managing Director of a company known as “Milled Carbon Ltd.” in Warwickshire County in England (Henley in Arden). Mr. Davidson was very helpful and informative, and has written: “we (recycle Carbon Fiber) by a continuous pyrolysis process which removes all the resin/binder from the fibres….We are also able to recycle end of rolls or out of date rolls of prepreg to get back the fibre in its original form….” -John Davidson MSc., Milled Carbon Ltd.

2. Lightness Carbon Fiber Composites are incredibly lightweight as well as strong. A 10 ft. long steel W12 x 50 weighs 500 lbs (50 lbs. per linear ft.) A Carbon Fiber W section of the same size would weigh 2 lbs. per linear ft. The Carbon Fiber W section would weigh a total of 20 lbs, and could possess a compressive and tensile strength of 250,000 + psi (www.matweb.com) compared to 70,000 psi Compressive and Tensile strength In the Steel Beam. A Carbon Fiber Beam could be 4% as heavy and over three times as strong as the Steel Equivalent. Lightness in Carbon Fiber is one of the main reasons for its use in high performance applications. Carbon FIber construction elements would contribute to greatly decreased construction time as well as reduced self-weight in a structure, allowing for unprecedented cantilever and span.

3. Speed of Assembly The proof of increased speed of assembly is evident in the Advanced Composites Group (ACG) supplied 46-meter NECSO bridge project in Spain. Using CFRP rebar meant 95% reduction in assembly time as a result of 85% reduction in weight. (ACG Technical Centre Report, Oct. 2005 vol. 14 no.1) It is conceivable that lighter construction elements would be put in place more quickly, as an increased number of lighter structural elements can be brought to a building site more quickly. It is possible also that a lighter structural system could be prefabricated and moved more easily by any means of transport.

4. High Performance Carbon Fiber Composites possess superior qualities, especially in terms of strength and rigidity. According to www.toray.com, Carbon Fiber can possess a tensile strength of 1.1 million pounds per square inch. According to www.matweb.com, Carbon Fiber composite materials can possess a compressive strength of 250,000 pounds per square inch. Carbon Fiber also has a much-reduced ultimate elongation (stretch) of around .75%. For reference, steel can possess an ultimate elongation

21 (stretch) of 6% or more. Carbon Fiber also possesses an infinite fatigue life. Some Carbon Composites are also able to maintain stability in very high temperatures. A product movie at Www.epp.goodrich.com/fyreroc/ displays video footage of spanning Carbon Fiber composite withstanding 1495° F under load compared to spanning Steel, which lost stability at 1472° F under equal load. SIPS panels, which comprise Carbon Fiber sheet with a Carbon foam core, have been tested “in accordance with ASTM E 1886,” and “ISO 1182” non-combustibility standards. In areas where Hurricanes and High winds are prevalent, Carbon Fiber SIPS panels have proven to be a superior “safe room” construction component as noted by the Department of Housing and Urban Development. It is possible that Carbon fiber undergoes galvanic corrosion when in contact with certain metals. This is further necessity for more technology in the realm of carbon fiber bolts and fasteners. Though Carbon Fiber is extremely successful in terms of compression strength, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity, its weakness appears to be in the area of shear strength. There are ways to attack this issue such as reduced point loading and further structural logical solidarity of frame or shell.

5. Cost 1n 1970, Carbon Fiber cost around $150 per lb. That cost has dropped to $5 per lb in 2006. Conventionally, Carbon Fiber Composites are compared to Steel based on dollars per pound. This is not quite exact as a comparison, because one pound of steel has 1/16 the volume of one pound of Carbon Fiber Composite. A cube of steel that weights one pound, is 1.55 inches in all three dimensions, and costs 27.5 cents. The exact same volume in Carbon Fiber weighs roughly 1 ounce, and costs 31.5 cents. By volume, Carbon Fiber Composite is roughly equal to steel in terms of cost. Therefore, Carbon Fiber (possibly three to ten times stronger than steel) is available at the same cost by volume. The process of working with Carbon Fiber is generally more expensive, however, when compared to steel, wood, or concrete. One of the reasons for this is simply that Conventional Building Materials have been in use for many years.

22 III. A Taxonomic Development for Formal, Constructional, and Structural Integration of Carbon Fiber in Architecture Within this thesis, the objective was set forth to pursue spatial Carbon Fiber Prototype modules. Surprisingly, The Design and Manufacture of basic inhabitable volumes such as cube, pyramid, cylinder, etc. has not been accomplished on a large scale. Of course Carbon Fiber has been used to make expensive automobiles and airplanes, but not basic room types that might potentially be recombined, cross-linked, stacked, or cantilevered. It was decided upon that, (for the purposes of this exercise) most architectural spaces can be traced genetically to one of 5 spaces; Cube, Pyramid, Triangular Extrusion, Cylinder, or Sphere. (not necessarily Platonic) It was also decided that (for the purposes of this exercise) Building Construction is often the tactile combination of Linear, Planar, or Volumetric Elements like a beam, a 4x8 sheet, or a dome or retaining wall, etc. This table and the subsequent tables examine the manufacture of these 5 spaces with one of seven approaches. Furthermore, it was deemed necessary to investigate recombination and cross linking of potential prototype module types.

Tactile Investigation of the Carbon Fiber Process

23 Before design investigation, it was imperative to learn the tactile process involved with the Carbon Fiber Composite process and its constituent phases, Lamination, Forming, Curing, & Removal of Excess. After knowledge was obtained relative to strength of differing layer amounts, etc. the design investigation of prototypes and subsequent details / cost estimate data could be further pursued.

Prototype Genesis: 5 Spaces x 7 Component Approaches

24

Table of revised Variable-Scale Prototypes

25

Prototype Recombination

26

Prototype Cross Linking

27 A. Characteristic Properties of Carbon Fiber 1. Constituent Elements of Carbon Fiber and their Organizational Pattern: a Parallel to the Textile Fabric

Chart of Carbon Fiber Situational Phases Carbon Fiber is a textile fabric. Kevlar, Polyester, Fiberglass, Nylon, Cotton, and Rayon are textiles as well. This portion of the thesis considers in detail how Carbon Fiber cloth/fabric is woven and further converted into products. This portion also examines some properties of other textiles. Unidirectional: Carbon fiber is used in a “unidirectional” way where fibers normally run parallel within a resin binder. Fibers can be accessed in pre-impregnated or dry rolls and spools. This is good for bonding to ceilings and walls, but not so much for compact curvatures. Multidirectional: It is also possible to access “multidirectional” matrix fabric where fiber tows are at 90 or 60 degrees relative to each other. These patterns are known as “plain” and “twill.” Often fiberglass, titanium, or Kevlar are interwoven as well. Most fabrics are purchased as either dry cloth or pre-resinimpregnated cloth. Malleable + Rigid Product Characteristics: Malleable: Malleable carbon fiber structures either use titanium, aluminum, or a “shape memory polymer” (Cornerstone Research Group) as a re-formable (re-heatable) compressive element, or exist as a completely tensile structure or surface with ropes, fabric, and individual bundles of fiber in tows. Rigid: Most Carbon fiber products exist as rigid items that cannot be reshaped. In these structures, Carbon fiber combines integrally with Epoxy, Phenolic, or Polyester Resin that is cured in an Autoclave or allowed to cure in air without heat. Carbon fiber reinforced or Shape Memory Polymer (produced by Cornerstone Research Group) possesses the ability to alternate from Rigid to Malleable. Carbon Fiber Isolated: Carbon Fiber has immense Tensile strength and Modulus, and in a purely tensile structure, could be able to achieve wonderful characteristics. Without a resin or binder, individual fiber buckling resistance is reduced or nonexistent. Carbon Fiber as a rope or cable could be woven into a purely tensile structure, (similar to a rope bridge) suspended between other masses.

28 Carbon fiber: Some properties of Carbon are shown for comparison to other fiber textiles. (appsci.queensu.ca/ilc/livebuilding) • • • •

Highest tensile strength Smallest ultimate elongation Semi-conductive (thermal, electrical and RF energy.) Impervious to chloride ion and other chemical exposure.

Aramid (Kevlar): Kevlar is an Aramid fiber patented by DuPont. Aramid is made from nylon, and has excellent properties in addition to blast protection, and is beginning to be used in Concrete. Kevlar is normally yellow in color, and is often combined with Carbon fiber. • • • • • • •

Low density Very lightweight, 1/6 the weight of standard steel Medium tensile strength Medium ultimate elongation Excellent abrasion resistance UV exposure can cause degradation of aramid fibre Kevlar melts / decomposes at around 800-950 degrees F

Fiberglass: Glass fractures easily, and therefore Fiberglass composites are substandard to Carbon Fiber composites. (Fig. 16.) Most people in general do not understand the distinct differences between fiberglass composites and carbon composites. Some companies such as STRONGWELL produce “pultruded” fiberglass bolts, beams, columns, and girders. Compared to Carbon, glass is much less resistant to heat, but fiberglass has proven to work well as concrete reinforcing. In the late 50’s, LOTUS (an automotive company) experimented with fiberglass as an automobile structure, but was unsuccessful. Fiberglass has worked well for body panels on Corvette and Ferrari automobiles, however. Fiberglass composites are generally heavier than Carbon composites. Fiberglass is clear in color and is often interwoven with Carbon fiber cloth. • • • • • • •

High density Lowest tensile strength Longest ultimate elongation 1/4 the weight of standard steel Non-conductive, non-magnetic Non-corrosive, impervious to chloride ion and chemical exposure. Transparent to magnetic fields or radio frequencies.

Polyester: Some professionals in the Carbon fiber industry believe that Polyester fiber can be converted into Carbon fiber, but this is not common. Polyester is far cheaper than Carbon cloth. ($1-5 per square yd.) Polyester is used in many kinds of fabric products everywhere.

2. Carbon Fiber Performance Properties and Comparison to other Materials: Wood & Steel for Reference It is important to compare Carbon Fiber Composite to Wood and Steel, as wood and steel are prevalent materials in building construction. Carbon Fiber has many good properties as well. Wood is a wonderful building material. It is a renewable resource, and it has a wonderful aesthetic. Being, however, an organic product it is more susceptible to environmental impact. Wood structures continuously fall victim to termite infestation throughout the southern half of the United States and elsewhere. Wood, because of its relative porosity has a tendency to develop moisture related problems, such as mold and mildew. Also, random moisture absorption and release means that a large amount of the lumber delivered to any given job site will be returned or burned, because of warping and distortion. Consequently, the formal unpredictability of wood structural elements can result in waste of natural resources, by driving lumber to, as well as from the job site. Also, a wood structure has the

29 tendency to burn very easily. Carbon Fiber composites have a much higher resistance to heat and fire. Their application is found in automobile engine compartments and NASA space shuttle wing components, which are subject to intense heat generation by friction. Furthermore, increased use of engineered wood products in construction has contributed to formaldehyde pollution resulting in reduced internal air quality. Carbon Fiber Composites have initial odors, which disappear rapidly, whereas engineered wood product formaldehydes never quite “clear out” so to speak. The point is that “wooden” construction is quickly being replaced by “glue/sawdust” construction. Though wood is a renewable resource, most chemicals found in plywood, OSB, or I-Joists are not. Carbon Fiber Composites are relatively free of these problems, such as moisture absorption, distortion, termite infestation, mold & mildew growth, or extremely low burn temperatures. As with concrete, Carbon Fiber Composite used in conjunction with lumber could result in a very strong and reliable construction. Metal: Although a brief discussion has been given on steel rebar, there is more to discuss about metals. They, (steel in particular), have many good and some not so good qualities. Steel has a very high U-value and thermal conductivity compared to wood or plastic. Heat flows rapidly, and in a fire, the center of a steel beam or column section can heat up very quickly. Comparatively, a wood glue-lam beam can keep heat out of its core for a good amount of time because of low thermal conductivity and charring. Also, some metals develop resonant frequencies that can be detrimental to a building or bridge structures, making them behave like a tuning fork. In metal, harmonic resonance builds on itself, whereas plastic would not make a good tuning fork. According to (http://www.fortressstabilization.com/) steel reinforcing has an elongation rate of 6% compared to 1.5% for carbon fiber. The cutting of steel often requires carbon fiber, heat, dangerous light, and chemical vapor. Steel is far more challenging to cut than wood or plastic. Steel also rusts badly depending on climate. Some steel can rust only to a point. Other steel will continue to rust. Epoxy, on the other hand can resist over 170 caustic chemicals. (www.engineeringtoolbox.com) The melting point of steel (around 2500° F) is lower than carbon, which can withstand (and is often manufactured in) temperatures in excess of 5000° F). However, it is necessary to understand that Steel does not have to melt in order to lose its structural integrity. Steel strength diminishes with time in elevated temperatures. It is understood that the strength of structural Steel diminishes by 40% in temperatures as low as 1020° F. (http://www.corusconstruction.com/fire/fr006.htm)

Fig. 2:

A: Graph A shows that the cost of steel (USD per gross ton) increased substantially from $85 in Jan. 02 to $280 in March 04. (Gardner Publications Inc. 2006) B: Graph B shows how aluminum, (being lighter and more easily machined) eclipsed steel manufacturing in Wheel Industry between 1980 and 2003. (www.autosteel.org ) C: Graph C shows the increasing cost of steel in India, China, and the US, from $348/Ton in Jan. 03 to $550/Ton in Feb. 04. (CRU Group, UK and Metal Bulletin) D: Graph D, as a supplement to C, shows rising input costs from DRI (direct reduced iron), Auto Scrap, Met-coke, and Iron ore. This shows that even Iron Ore became more expensive in 2004. (CRU Group, UK and Metal Bulletin)

30 Steel has a very low strength to weight ratio when compared to Carbon Fiber composites. The production process of steel is not exactly friendly to the environment, because it requires the refinement of extracted Iron ore, Limestone, and Coal in over 20 major phases. (Carroll Smith, p. 60) With all of this in mind, one of the major current problems with steel is its skyrocketing cost from $85 USD/Ton in Jan ’02 to $550 USD/Ton in Feb. ’04. (Fig. 2) Steel does, however, have a much better fatigue life than aluminum, which becomes weak and fatigued often unexpectedly. As a result of the drawbacks listed above for concrete and wood, carbon fiber can become an attractive material in building construction. Already, carbon fiber is used to reinforce steel beams and girders, and could be used to reinforce aluminum as well. Compared to concrete (which requires formwork), and layered gypsum board, carbon composites could do a superior job of fireproofing steel structures in an unobtrusive and less labor-intensive way.

3. Formal and Structural Possibilities Associated with Carbon Fiber The following depictions begin by addressing Carbon Fiber operating free of resin, and address Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer secondly.

3.1 Line Carbon Fiber has the ability to be formed into a straight or bent linear form or structure.

Straight Carbon Fiber can make a straight-line form in many ways. A single strand of carbon fiber without resin can be stretched in tension, or with resin can exhibit strength as a rod or hollow tube. As bidirectional or unidirectional tape (Single or Multi-Laminate) a straight linear element can be stretched between objects in tension or with resin can exist as a linear plate. It is also possible to layer unidirectional or bi-directional cloth or strands over a pre-existing linear plate. By wrapping any linear element with carbon fabric layers, it is possible to make Structural Square or Circular tubes. Individual Resin impregnated continuous carbon strand can be mechanically or manually wound around a rotisserie linear element. It is possible also to put chopped short carbon fibers and carbon powder into a Resin mixture, and then extrude through a non-moving die. Linear elements can also be produced by pressure molding in a linear cast made of glass or metal. Glass or Metal as a formwork is beneficial, because with glass or metal, there is the least likelihood of resin bonding to a non-porous form surface that is also a different material.

Bent In order to produce a bent linear element, a dry strand or tape can be woven within an open framework, or with resin can be interwoven with a framework that might later be removed. It is possible to utilize a deformed linear piece of Styrofoam, Carbon Foam, Plastic Square, or circular tube and wrap with carbon tape or cloth in multiple layers. Layers of resin impregnated carbon tape can be applied linearly to a bent surface, and then removed after curing. In addition, a plate could be produced and then sawed, laser cut, or CNC milled into strips. Putting ground short fibers into resin and extruding through a moving die is also a way to produce a bent linear element. Once again, Linear elements can be made by pressure casting carbon fiber in a metal or glass cast which possess a bent linear void.

3.2 Plane Carbon Fiber has the ability to be formed into a straight or curved planar form or structure

Straight Carbon Fiber is able to produce a straight planar form through stretching a single dry piece of bi-directional carbon fiber cloth between three or more peripheral supporting elements, or by stretching a piece of unidirectional cloth between two elements or more. This is the logic of a tympanum. With resin, a straight planar form can be produced by layering anywhere from one to multiple layers of cloth on one glass or metal surface, or between two glass or metal layers under pressure in order to eliminate air pocket formation. Also by stretching a wide cloth with resin between elements, a plane can be produced. Once formed, the sheet can be cut at the edges for regularity. It is also possible to produce a plane by cris-crossing many strands or tapes across a flat surface or between flat surfaces. Finally, mixing chopped carbon fibers into resin, and then pouring that mixture upon a surface can produce (on one surface, or between two non-porous surfaces) a straight plane.

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Curvilinear Carbon Fiber can produce a curvilinear planar element by stretching one wide piece or overlapped multiple pieces of dry cloth between anchors and pressurizing the air underneath. This would produce an upward curved plane without the use of resin. With resin, a Curved planar element has more likelihood of retaining its shape. By laminating one or multiple layers upon a curved metal or glass panel or between multiple curved panels with single or double curvature it is possible to produce a curved planar element. It is also possible to cris-cross strands or tape across a surface or between multiple surfaces. Finally, mixing chopped carbon fibers into resin, and then pouring that mixture upon a curved planar surface can produce (on one, or between two non-porous surfaces) a curvilinear plane. After a point, Curved planar forms and structures begin to cross the line into volumetric elements.

3.3 Volume Carbon Fiber has the ability to be formed into any monolithic or trabeated volumetric form or structure. Most approaches to volumetric carbon fiber construction will almost always require a resin, glass, concrete, or carbon binder.

Monolithic Shapes: Shell It is theoretically possible to produce a tympanic/volumetric shell in carbon fiber without resin. If a wide cloth were suspended at both ends, to other static elements, and then altered towards the center with compressive air pressure or tensile out-branching fibers at specific locations, it would produce a monolithic carbon fiber volume. With resin, however, volumetric capacity is more easily achieved. Once again, by applying resin impregnated bi-directional or unidirectional cloth to, on, or into any volumetric type of surface, or by wrapping a foam or inflated (lost form) object with strands or tape a volumetric shell is possible. Finally, chopped carbon fiber mixed into resin and then poured to, on, or into a glass, metal, or plastic form (with a bond breaker) will produce a monolithic shell that adopts the void attributes of the formwork. The shells can be cut as required. Trabeated Systems: Skeleton A trabeated fully tensile structure could be composed of carbon strand or rope. The volume would exist as a woven tent-like structure, and be further suspended between other existing surfaces within an urban or natural “canyon.” This would be a synthesis of tympanum and hammock logic, containing compressed elevated air pressure. Once again, with resin binder, a trabeated volume is easier to achieve. A trabeated volume would exist as a combination of straight or bent linear elements. It is possible to inject into formwork the mixture of resin containing chopped carbon fiber in order to produce a trabeated volume. In order to produce a trabeated volume, the connections can be produced, and combined with connections. For instance, in a cube framework, there are eight volumetric connections that could be later connected in varying ways. Carbon Fiber Composite Materials can produce a structural framework where connections occur at mid-span, third-span, or quarter-span in order to allow for fabrically integrated moment connections.

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B. Prototypes as Recombinants for Carbon Fiber Application in Architecture Carbon Fiber can be pressure laminated or filament wound to produce objects that follow a “shell” logic or a “skeleton” logic. This portion of the thesis examines the design and recombination of prototype modules constructed in Carbon Fiber.

33 1. System Type: Shell

1.1. Structure, Enclosure and Assembly for elemental Forms In the Chart “Structural Details: Shell Type,” 16 different details provide an approach for detailing a Structural Shell Composed of Carbon Fiber Composite. The general configuration is Foam Insulation between two panels of Pressure Laminated Carbon Fiber. These Details are pertinent to Cube, Pyramid, Cylinder, and Sphere Volumes as well as others. These Details were designed specifically for this thesis, as Carbon Fiber Construction Details are difficult to access or nonexistent. The next diagram depicts possible foundation approach and aperture application.

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Approaches for Foundation Design and Aperture Assembly with respect to Carbon Fiber

35 1.1.1 Cube

The Cube volume constructed as a shell is here depicted as a shell split in half, or as a completely closed volume. In the above version, formal aspects are shown where a volume is split in half, and supported on a single pilotis shell. Construction is achieved through assembly of two volumes, stackable and transportable. The details show minimal joints and surfaces. In the second diagram, specific information is given pertaining to form, assembly, recombinance detail, weight, cost, and cloth quantity. This volume is much reduced and delineates the basic process of assembly, which requires a pre-made aluminum form system. The form system is able to be cleaned, as well as assembled and reassembled over and again.

36 1.1.2 Pyramid

The volume approach to pyramid is shown first as a single folded and curving surface. The surface is fastened to a base plate, and contains a vertical circulation shaft and possible middle floor. The assembly is achieved through combination of five basic types of sub-elements. In the secondary diagram, a much more basic triangular carbon fiber room is shown. The assembly process is depicted in four major steps. Though this module is reductive, is allows for calculation of necessary quantities and amounts. The recombination detail is very similar in all shell types, where two wall types are bolted and adhered if necessary, together.

37 1.1.3 Cylinder

The cylindrical house type above borrows and exemplifies the carbon fiber monocoque house. It displays how, through assembly of an initial monocoque, a pilotis base, a possible balcony, and a monolithic plastic transparency a house can be produced. The structural images also display space in detail. The monolithic display shows how a curtain façade can transform into a guardrail at the roof level. The second diagram shows a highly specific process of assembly beginning with metal pre made form system, and approaching a solid uniform contained space. This shell cylinder weighs 500 lbs, and costs between $2,672 and $22,807. Here, recombination is different depending on configuration because of curved and flat surfaces. Two concave surfaces together require a different connector than two flat surfaces or a curved and flat surface. The second model uses applied sheet foam insulation, and the above utilizes sprayed in expanding foam insulation. As are common with all shell types, low heating and cooling requirements are possible, as a result of limited amount of contacts between interior surface and exterior surface.

38 1.1.4 Sphere

The first shell type is quasi theatrical, but exists as a median between filament wind and monocoque shell. The concept is a transparent bubble that is pressure or vacuum formed or injection molded. This “bubble” is then post structured with carbon fiber hoops, which borrow directly from the logic of the advanced tennis racquet. The second diagram gives, once again the specific assembly process of a double-layered shell, which has a diameter of 11’ and contains 356.37 pounds of carbon fiber. The recombination process utilizes a double curvature plate attached to the shells with 4-16 bolts or epoxy or both. Aperture can be further obtained by cutting, etc.

39 1.1.5 Amorphous

The amorphous carbon fiber monocoque shell is highly minimal and, while possessing the surface of a sports car, has the structural detail of a dress suit. This prototype is shown in order to depict the free form as well as minimal nature of carbon fiber composite materials. The constructional assembly diagram shows how layers of fiber interact with the resin binder. In this prototype, the ends are open alluding to open ended-ness. The structural detail is perhaps impossible to describe with anything other than words.

40 1.2. Recombinants: Structure, Enclosure and Assembly 1.2.1 Cube + Cube

The cube + cube stacking is shown, as a way of showing that a structure (which weighs around 700 pounds+/- and is seven times stronger than steel) such as this can be stacked or cantilevered at will, with highly reduced likelihood of eventual structural settling or collapse. The single pilotis, floors, windows and shells can be assembled with adhesives, resulting in complete alleviation of corrodible fasteners. The structural images show structural space and minimal assembly.

41 1.2.2 Cube + Pyramid

In this model, the pyramid shell type and cube type recombine in a process involving different phases. The pyramid is assembled with the base, and the cube is stacked on top. This model could be four stories, two stories, or three. As noted, columns are removed, and bearing wall supports structure with double or triple layering. Again, assembly is possible without fasteners.

1.2.3 Cube + Cylinder

Here the cylinder monocoque and the cube shell interact, towards the fruition of the neo living machine. Though both sit atop a single pilotis connection is achieved through upper story corridor. The collusion of these elements produces a concave interstitial, as this type is about curvature and planarity.

42 1.2.4 Cube + Sphere

The quasi theatrical hoop-sphere combines with the planar cube. This model is remarkably simple to transport, because the structural system is composed of stacked tapered hoops and three plane half cubes. As before, connection is achieved through solid corridors manufactured as sailing boat boom arms are assembled. This prototype is a statement on dual curvature versus plane.

1.2.5 Cube + Amorphous

In this prototype, the cube is surrounded by an external structure, which can block high winds, or serve as a vertical interstitial. Assembly is achieved through adding the cube shell to the amorphous filament wound volume, which is connected to the cube with extending arms. Use of fasteners is recommended. The external dual interstitial can be punctured in order for the utmost interior space to connect with the outside.

43 1.2.6 Pyramid + Pyramid

In this iteration where shell pyramid interacts with shell pyramid, the continuous wrapping plane embodies volume, and allows for re-combinance. The axon assembly diagram shows how base foundation combines with mounting plates, vertical circulation tower, shell and transparency. The details involved are very similar to previous pyramid details, especially involving plane-to-plane contact. This prototype exists as a pleasant re-inversion or itself.

1.2.7 Pyramid + Cylinder

Pyramid shell interacts with the cylinder shell, again producing an interesting interstitial. Though the two volumes are of the same lineage, they possess individual traits, as are exemplified by the assembly diagram. In the diagram, base, support, shell, platform, and transparent monolith are combined.

44 1.2.8 Pyramid + Sphere

When pyramid and sphere interact, there is a layering of space, and sphere becomes incredibly introverted. There is now the potential for interstitial atria housing other functions. The assembly is simply shell applied to base plus platform, transparency and sphere. The sphere represented is that of the second shell sphere process, and exhibits smoothness. Of course, the sphere could also connect with the exterior if needed.

1.2.9 Cylinder + Cylinder

This example displays how the carbon fiber monocoque shell cylinder can be stacked. The assembly shows how base plate accepts tube piloti, as well as primary monocoque, transparent monolith, and interior walkways if necessary. The roof garden space is paramount at the highest point, however the lower module roof garden can be exemplified if the the secondary is raised through the use of a taller tube piloti.

45 1.2.10 Cylinder + Sphere

In this prototype, the monocoque cylinder is a primary support for the sphere shell monolith. The sphere is connected by means of a tube to the cylinder, which rests on a single tube piloti, and receives further transparency and walkways. If the cylinder were expanded, the sphere could exist inside the cylinder.

1.2.11 Amorphous + Amorphous

In the monolithic amorphous shell, resin and fabric layers combine to produce a modularized deformation. The assembly and detail images show the detail of fabric and layering of cloth. The amorphous item is of course free form. It is possible to filament wind the carbon fiber, and then apply regularized panes of transparency. A single layer Is much easier to seal

46 2. System Type: Skeletal 2.1. Structure, Enclosure, and Assembly for Elemental Forms 2.1.1 Cube

The skeletal tube structure has advantages and disadvantages over the shell type. The shell type has much reduced transparency, with increased insulative qualities. The skeletal type has greater lightness, and is spatially more flexible, as four skeletal frames can make a larger space, but four shells make four rooms, no less, without sawing. The first rendered version (above) has a foundation platform, with an inserted floor and ceiling and monolith transparency. The second has no transparent monolith, or foundation, but displays cost ($8,834) and amount of carbon fiber necessary as well as weight, which is roughly 207 pounds. The second displays details and has a fixed dimension. (11’) Exterior surface is obtained through application of sealed carbon fiber or plexi / acrylic panels. The second also grants a detailed assembly process.

47 2.1.2 Pyramid

In the skeletal pyramid type, structural modularity stems from the level of the moment connection to the vast recombination of modules. In the first, which is slightly more building-esque, multiple levels are achieved, with vertical circulation and a roof platform. The second table displays one room as well as details, assembly, and numerical data. Interestingly, the pyramid proves to be about 14 pounds heavier than the cube, smaller and more expensive. The macro structure is achieved through mass production of three and four point spars that are insulative, and later connected at midspan.

48 2.1.3 Cylinder

The initial Skeletal Cylinder was derived from the racquet logic. Multiple hoops combined and stacked on linear connector tubes. Flooring is achieved with standard beam/fastener logic. Initially assembly was conceived as cylindrical skeleton on base, with floor, and monolith transparency. The second table shows a skeletal cylinder conceived as a filament wound logic, where one strand continues in space, and layers of strand multiply to form a solid skeletal monolith. Though the amount used was equal to the amount used for the shell cylinder, it is likely possible to utilize less than 2/3 as much carbon fiber. In the second filament wind, structure is achieved in a more straightforward fashion, however transparency is more complex and consisting of individual mosaic panels, like a stained-glass window might.

49 2.1.4 Sphere

The initial Sphere skeleton was, like the cylinder, a combination of hoops, though stacking spirally. Many fasteners are necessary, but the product is clean. Assembly begins with three large hollow hoops, + transparency supports, + floors, and finally + dual curved plates. In the second sphere skeleton approach, a metallic formwork is assembled, and then receives multiple filament winds of carbon fiber at the aim of producing a sphere. Once complete, the form is removed through an aperture. Transparency can be achieved through mosaic panels, or regularized plates overlapping at the epoxied seams. As with the cylinder, though 356 pounds of carbon fiber are used, it may be likely to succeed with around 200 pounds. Interconnectivity is achieved with a dual curvature plate and epoxy or bolts with lamination plates. This apparatus is very similar as would be used in a sphere shell.

50 2.1.5 Amorphous

The amorphous carbon fiber skeleton is its own assembly process, slightly more difficult to recombine, and more time consuming in terms of formwork and curtain wall transparency. The great advantage is that this is what many designers think of when carbon fiber in architecture comes to mind. This prototype resembles a rib cage of sorts, and though slightly radical, is highly organic in form. Assembly is achieved through cnc routed planes of foam that are stacked, sanded, and further covered with 10-20 layers of carbon fiber composite. The carbon in this case would likely have to be sanded, which is unfortunate. Instead of sanding, it would be possible to make “finish panels” which are 1-2’ in surface area and are applied individually over the rough composite surface. Transparency is a molded polycarbonate or plexi shell.

2.2. Recombinants 2.2.1 Cube + Cube

This is simply the exact replication of the initial skeletal cube utilizing a taller transparent monolith.

51 2.2.2 Cube + Pyramid

This combination places the inverted pyramid on top of the cube skeleton. Assembly involves a base plate, the cube skeleton with infill, additional floors, the pyramid skeleton, the final top platform addition, and finally, addition of transparent monoliths. In terms of connectivity, the pyramid simply rests on the cube, and dual exterior separated spaces are achieved.

2.2.3 Cube + Cylinder

In this prototype, the skeletal cylinder and cube are paired, following the similar tube frame logic. Both are assembled as their own constituent beings, and connected on one side of the cube. This requires a circular cut in the side panel of the cube, and structural connection, other than at the base is not necessary.

52 2.2.4 Cube + Sphere

Here, the hoop composed sphere frame interlocks with planar surfaces of the basic cube skeleton. At points of intersection, mosaic transparency is likely necessary, but the entire structure could welcome an amorphous cubic/spheric monolithic transparency. This module is very promising, however less able to be multiplied at will. Connectivity is achieved through cutting of slots, etc.

2.2.5 Cube + Amorphous

This model is almost no different than the prototype shell cube with an amorphous addition. It is conceivable that the woven frame could embody program, or serve as some type of information transfer device. Assembly is very straightforward, as shown in the exploded diagram.

53 2.2.6 Pyramid + Pyramid

In this model, two pyramidal geometries are intersected, and interestingly, bare resemblance to the villa Savoye in some promising ways. The intersection of dual pyramids creates an exoskeletal truss moment, as exterior areas are gained on two levels. The assembly involves dual platforms as well, with individual planar transparency.

2.2.7 Pyramid + Cylinder

This complex exists as the basic adjacency of the inverted pyramid skeletal type and the cylindrical skeletal type. The difference is that they are connected once again to the same foundation platform, and share a linking corridor. One new advantage is that the roof platform extends over the cylinder.

54 2.2.8 Pyramid + Sphere

This assembly is a bit complex, as the hoop sphere skeleton rests within the inverted pyramid. This leads to lowering of a portion of the uppermost platform. As shown by the detail, connection is achieved at three points of the hoop sphere construction. This module is difficult to stack vertically, but not horizontally.

2.2.9 Cylinder + Cylinder

The logic of this model is very straightforward. This is basically the understanding inherent in the initial skeletal cylinder, doubled. The only difference is the connectivity, which is achieved with supports between hoops, at four or more points.

55 2.2.10 Cylinder + Sphere

in this model, the sphere type and the cylinder type coexist, linked not by platform, but by complex plate connection at extremity. Circulation between likely requires external covered pathways. The sphere/cylinder can be stacked in many ways: end-to-end, in a line, or one on top of the other. It is also possible to alternate configuration, with a 180-degree rotation at every interval

2.2.11 Sphere + Sphere

Sphere + Sphere is like the Geodesic dome multiplied many times, and likely the opposite mentality. No real modification is required; the assembly is simply the multiplied process of the initial skeletal sphere, repeated. It is important to notice that the sphere has connectors on the top, bottom, right, and left sides. This allows for connectivity at 4 of 6 nodal points, and vertical circulation would likely require external elevators, placed between stacks. Connection is achieved through adhesive and/or carbon bolts.

56 2.2.12 Amorphous + Amorphous

This is the instance of amorphous modularity and recombination where carbon fiber re-combinance requires speculation on interstitial quality. In the assembly diagram, it seems apparent that the modules are different, but they are in fact exactly the same, and rotated accordingly. The process of producing this type of highly complex geometry in carbon fiber combined with fluid monolithic transparency is quite involved and expensive if using an outside contractor. With the digital model, it is easy to perform Finite Element Analysis on such an assembly in order to define structural weak points in need of additional layering. Documentation involves digital section generation at _” to _” intervals. The interval section cuts are then printed or cnc routed in Styrofoam sheets. The sheets, once routed, are organized, and finally layered together. The entire assembly in foam, then receives anywhere from 10 to 30 layers of carbon fiber composite on its surface. “Finish panels” can be applied, or the surface can be sanded smooth, and painted. Or the layering process of the carbon can be accompanied with “dry-brushing” which produces a dry fiber surface that is likely a bit more fire resistant. The small amount of resin left on the fiber recedes into the fiber matrix and causes a pure fiber surface. This pure fiber surface can also receive a sprayed on epoxy clear-coat finish, which is able to obtain a high gloss, once color-sanded and polished.

3. Glazing 3.1. Glazing Materials Comparison: Glass, Polycarbonate, Plastic, Plexi-glass Glass, like metal, has a very high thermal conductivity. It is also very brittle. Risks of cracking and shattering are frequent in glass when compared to plastic. For these reasons, an extensive horizontal, continuous mullion-less ribbon window made of glass would be difficult to achieve. Glass requires joints, containing silicone, or some other weather-stripping in order to isolate from building vibration. Glass is also very heavy, and has a melting point of around 1800 degrees F. However, polycarbonates and plastics are becoming more prevalent in architecture worldwide, as plastics (phenolic resins in particular) have higher resistance to heat, and more resistance to discoloration. Because plastic is tougher and less fragile than glass, it is possible to enhance transparency with plastic by completely alleviating all need for mullions or silicone. This could result in the hyper-minimal and the omission of the non-essential, and the safe construction of translucent flooring. The air spaces in glass windows represent added cost and likelihood of interior vapor formation. Finally, compared to plastic, glass is very hard to drill, saw, or cut on site.

57 3.2. Choice of Glazing It is possible to produce expansive transparency without glass. Large transparency has been achieved where necessary with plastic that is very strong. In bulletproof glass, there are noted many layers of transparent polyester and epoxy sheets laminated between glass. The layering of absorptive sheets causes shock waves to interface with many transitions and eventually cease. In glass, a shock wave moves like sound in water, very directly. The glass, of course, allows for abrasion resistance. One of the drawbacks with transparent plastics is that wear and scratching will normally cause a foggy appearance where a thin veneer of glass will avoid scratches better. It is seldom seen in building construction where glass is put in place with an adhesive. The reason for this is that, of course, glass is a different material than epoxy. Acrylic or Lexan sheet can be fastened in place, as they are materially more similar to Epoxies.

3.3. Installation and Assembly Process As seen in the detail portion regarding Shell type constructions, _” or _” translucency can be applied to a carbon fiber structure by means of a raised strip (1/2” square cross section), which can serve as the connection between the transparency and the structure. In standard building construction, glass must make a transition to structure, which is normally wood or metal. This requires a gasket of some type that usually breaks down with regular doses of UV. In a building type where the transparency and the structure both utilize epoxy, phenolic, or polyester resin, no fragile gasket is necessary. Of course in the Sports car precedents, glass is used as a front windscreen most often, and plastic is sometimes used on the sides, or over the engine, where vibration is prevalent. In the case where glass must transition to carbon fiber composite, the detail is likely similar to any automobile glazing detail where glass essentially sits on a rubber adhesive strip. In summary, the advantage of having a window and structure that are the same material is simply that the gasket material transition can be done away with altogether.

IV. – Conclusion In Conclusion, this thesis has examined in depth the material known as Carbon Fiber and its uses throughout the world. Initially it was necessary to examine Automotive Industry use, Furniture Design use, and Sports Equipment use in terms of Language of Form, Space, Assembly, and Structure. Other uses were taken into account in the building industry, for the study of enriching a practice that is currently in existence. This thesis has also considered the legacy of Le Corbusier and how contributions in Modern Architecture and Design can influence the use of Carbon Fiber in Architecture. The Material itself has been analyzed in depth in terms of Cost, Availability, Performance, Lightness, and Workability. Through analysis of Material Uses and Properties, many concepts are further derived as to how Carbon Fiber can be used as a Line, Plane, or Volume, or Shell or Skeleton. Once the necessary information and statistics were discovered, produced, or obtained, Speculation was pursued. It was decided that Architectural Design has long been the manufacture of Space, in varying forms, normally defined by right angles, acute angles, or curved surfaces, etc. th The beginning of the 20 century was a time when inventions and discoveries were constantly st emerging. The beginning of the 21 century is in no way different. Society is building on its past successes and failures, just like it did in 1906. Prior to 1906, many people believed that there could be no new inventions or discoveries. This was evidence of their fear of change. This Thesis has, of course, examined a material that is quickly altering the world in which we live. Carbon Fiber products are beginning to be seen everywhere, and the companies involved are building new facilities all over the world. Some have considered whether or not Carbon Fiber Composite is the “New Steel” or the “New Iron.” One has to respond to this by saying; “What good would that be?” It is very tough to draw an analogy like this because the materials are so incredibly different. Glass, Steel, and Stone are comparable with respect to hardness, and tooling difficulty. Carbon Fiber composite is radically different, and likely able to bring forth an entirely new building approach. Some might see Carbon Fiber composite as shaking the foundations of a plateau, which Global Contemporary Architecture currently rests at from time to time. This Thesis is mostly about examination of a technology st and its applications in our 21 century world. The overlying theme is that new sciences are developing, and it is for architects to examine them and determine their applications in society. This thesis also recognizes the slow evolution of building construction and its reluctance for change. This can be good,

58 because building (as those before us did) gives us a connection to our past. Building Construction has and will continue to evolve more slowly than other fields. Refined Metals were used as early as the 1300s, but were not used in Building Construction until the 1800s. Even then, architects such as John Ruskin were afraid of metal in architecture. It is also important to realize that the Building Construction Industry evolves differently than that of aerospace or automotive design. Le Corbusier theorized that a house states its problems more slowly and quietly than does a Formula 1 Car or Bicycle. Carbon Fiber is controversial as well, because it could open the door to design flexibility never before imagined. It is possible that this technology may not influence construction for some time. However, this thesis is also about being willing to investigate possibilities whether theoretical or pragmatic. Every designer can fall into reliance on comfort and established practices. This thesis looks favorably on the notion of “continued education” and constant learning while recognizing that technologies advance at different rates in different arenas. Nonetheless, examination of textiles (specifically Carbon Fiber textiles) can lead designers to consider form, space, assembly, and structure in another light.

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List of Additional Resources “Analysis of Carbon Nanotube Pull-Out from a Polymer Matrix” S.J.V. Frankland & V.M. Harik ICASE, Hampton, Virginia “Design of a Test Specimen to Assess the Effective Bond Length of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Strips Bonded to Fatigued Steel Bridge Girders” Katsuyoshi Nozaka, Carol K. Shield, & Jerome F. Hajjar. Journal of Composites for Construction: July/August 2005 “Repair of Steel Composite Beams with Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Plates” Abdullah H. Al-Saidy, F.W. Klaiber, & T. J. Wipf. Journal of Composites for Construction: March/April 2004 “Application of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Overlays to Extend Steel Fatigue Life” Sean C. Jones & Scott A. Civjan, P.E., Journal of Composites for Construction: November 2003 “Flexural Reinforcement of Glulam Timber Beams and Joints with Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Rods. Francesco Micelli, P.E., Vicenza Scialpi, P.E., & Antonio La Tegola.

“Plastics & the LCI Project: Modern Materials, Product Life Cycles, and Sustainability.” Modern Materials, Vol. 4 April 2006 Levy, Mike “Carbon Fiber: Precast Practicalities” The Construction Specifier, March 2006 Busel, John Pl. & Carson, John

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