Caesar

Caesar From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Sister project Look up caesar in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Caesar or C�sar may refer to the following: Contents [hide] * 1 Ancient Rome * 2 Cuisine * 3 Culture * 4 Fictional charactersOtto von Bismarck From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Not to be confused with Otto Christian Archibald von Bismarck. "Bismarck" redirects here. For other uses, see Bismarck (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008) Otto von Bismarck Otto von Bismarck 1st Chancellor of the German Empire In office 21 March 1871 � 20 March 1890 Monarch Wilhelm I (1871-1888) Frederick III (1888) Wilhelm II (1888-1890) Preceded by First Chancellor Succeeded by Leo von Caprivi 9th Minister President of the Kingdom of Prussia In office 23 September 1862 � 1 January 1873 Monarch Wilhelm I Preceded by Adolf of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen Succeeded by Albrecht von Roon 11th Minister President of the Kingdom of Prussia In office 9 November 1873 � 20 March 1890 Monarch Wilhelm I (1873-1888) Frederick III (1888) Wilhelm II (1888-1890) Preceded by Albrecht von Roon Succeeded by Leo von Caprivi Federal Chancellor of the North German Confederation In office 1867 � 1871 President Wilhelm I Preceded by Confederation established Succeeded by German Empire 23rd Foreign Minister of the Kingdom of Prussia In office 1862 � 1890 Monarch Wilhelm I (1862-1888) Frederick III (1888) Wilhelm II (1888-1890) Prime Minister 1862-1873

1873-1890) Preceded by Albrecht von Bernstorff Succeeded by Leo von Caprivi Born 1 April 1815(1815-04-01) Sch�nhausen, Prussia Died 30 July 1898 (aged 83) Friedrichsruh, Germany Political party none Spouse Johanna von Puttkamer Religion Lutheran Signature Otto von Bismarck's signature Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, Count of Bismarck-Sch�nhausen, Duke of Lauenburg, Prince of Bismarck, (1 April 1815 � 30 July 1898), was a Prussian and German statesman and aristocrat of the 19th century. As Minister-President of Prussia from 1862�1890, he oversaw the unification of Germany. In 1867 he became Chancellor of the North German Confederation. When the second German Empire was formed in 1871, he served as its first Chancellor until 1890 and practiced Realpolitik, which gained him the nickname "The Iron Chancellor". As Chancellor, Bismarck held an important role in the German government and greatly influenced German and international politics both during and after his time of service. Contents [hide] * * * * * * *

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Early years Early political career Military People Places Science See also

[edit] Ancient Rome The origin of the name has been much disputed, even in antiquity. It is probably not related to the root "to cut", a possible etymology for Caesarian section. It was borne by many members of the ancient Roman Gens Julia, most famously

Edel

* Gaius Julius Caesar (100 BC�44 BC) Roman general and dictator, hence o Julius Caesar (play), a tragedy by William Shakespeare o Julius Caesar (mini), a 2002 mini-series about Caesar, directed by Uli

o Caesar (novel), an historical novel by Colleen McCullough * Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia, 90s BC), father of the dictator * Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, the first Roman Emperor, nephew and adoptive son of the dictator * Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, fourth Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty * Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus), fifth and final Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. * Other members of the Julii Caesares, the family from which the dictator came Other ancient references to the name include * Caesar (title), a title used by Roman Emperors and also Ottoman Turkish Emperors, related as well to "Tsar", "Kaiser" and "Kaisar"

* Lives of the Twelve Caesars, a book written by Suetonius on Julius Caesar and the eleven emperors after him * Caesar!, a series of plays on BBC Radio 4 written by Mike Walker, each looking at a different Roman ruler.[citation needed] [edit] CuisineMalkiel Ashkenazi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Malkiel Ashkenazi was a Sephardic rabbi and leader of the Jewish community in Hebron in 1540. In 1517, when the Ottoman Turks conquered Palestine, Sephardic Jews living in exile in Ottoman Salonika were allowed to return to the Holy Land. Many of these Jews had been expelled from Spain in 1492. Hakham Malkiel Ashkenazi purchased a walled compound in Hebron and founded the Abraham Avinu Synagogue which became a center of study for Kabbalah. [1] Malkiel was a respected authority in Jewish law, and his decisions on religious matters were widely accepted, also outside of Hebron. [1] [edit] ReferencesSinai and Palestine Campaign From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Sinai and Palestine Campaign Part of Middle Eastern theatre (World War I) A model of a typical ANZAC soldier and his horse during the campaign Date January 28, 1915 -October 28, 1918 Location Sinai Peninsula, Palestine, and Syria Result British Victory Territorial changes Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire Belligerents Flag of the United Kingdom British Empire * Flag of the United Kingdom United Kingdom * Flag of Australia Australia * Flag of New Zealand New Zealand France Flag of Italy Kingdom of Italy Ottoman Empire German Empire Commanders Flag of the United Kingdom Sir John Maxwell Flag of the United Kingdom Sir Archibald Murray Flag of the United Kingdom Philip Chetwode Flag of the United Kingdom Charles Dobell Flag of the United Kingdom Edmund Allenby Flag of Australia Henry George Chauvel Ottoman flag Djemal Pasha Ottoman flag Jadir Bey Ottoman flag Tala Bey Flag of German Empire Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein Flag of German Empire Erich von Falkenhayn Flag of German Empire Otto Liman von Sanders [show] v � d � e Sinai and Palestine Campaign

Suez � Romani � Magdhaba � Rafa � 1st Gaza � 2nd Gaza � El Buggar � Beersheba � 3rd Gaza � Mughar Ridge � Jerusalem � Abu Tellul � Arara � Megiddo [show] v � d � e Theatres of World War I European Balkans � Western Front � Eastern Front � Italian Front Middle Eastern Caucasus � Mesopotamia � Sinai and Palestine � Gallipoli � Persia African South-West Africa � West Africa � East Africa Asian and Pacific Other Atlantic Ocean � Mediterranean � Naval � Aerial The Sinai and Palestine Campaign during the Middle Eastern Theatre of World War I was a series of battles which took place on the Sinai Peninsula, Palestine, and Syria between January 28, 1915 and October 28, 1918. British, Indian, Australian, and New Zealand forces opposed the German and Turkish forces. Contents [hide] * 1 Ottoman advance towards the Suez Canal o 1.1 First Suez Offensive o 1.2 Battle of Romani * 2 British advance across the Sinai * 3 Palestine campaign o 3.1 First Battle of Gaza o 3.2 Second Battle of Gaza o 3.3 Battle of El Buggar Ridge o 3.4 Battle of Beersheba o 3.5 Third Battle of Gaza * 4 The Final Year: Palestine and Syria o 4.1 Battle of Megiddo * 5 In popular media * 6 Summary * 7 External links * 8 Sources [edit] Ottoman advance towards the Suez Canal Map of north and central Sinai, 1917 The Ottoman Empire, at the urging of their German ally, chose to attack British and Egyptian forces in Egypt and shut the Suez Canal in the First Suez Offensive. The Ottoman army, under the command of the Turkish Minister of Marine, Djemal Pasha, was based in Jerusalem. At this time, the Sinai was an almost empty desert and very hard for an army to cross (no roads, no water). The chief of staff for Ottoman army was Colonel Kress von Kressenstein, who organized the attack and managed to get supplies for the army as it crossed the desert. [edit] First Suez Offensive Main article: First Suez Offensive The Ottoman Suez Expeditionary Force attack failed to achieve surprise as Ottoman army's approach. In fighting beaten, losing some 2000 men. Allied

arrived at the canal on February 2, 1915. The the British and Egyptians were aware of the that lasted for two days the Ottomans were losses were minimal.

Because the Suez Canal was vital to the Allied war effort, this failed attack caused the British to leave far more soldiers protecting the canal than they had planned on, resulting in a smaller force for the Gallipoli Campaign. The British forced the colonial Egyptian Army and Egyptian Navy to be enlarged to help defend Egypt. However, most Egyptians were poorly-armed and poorly-trained. [edit] Battle of Romani Main article: Battle of Romani More than a year passed with the British troops content to guard the Suez Canal and the Ottomans busy fighting the Russians in the Caucusus and the British at Gallipoli and in Mesopotamia. Then in July, the Ottoman army tried another offensive against the Suez. Again, the Ottomans advanced with an over-sized division. Again they ran into a well prepared Allied force, this time at Romani. Again, they retreated after two days of fighting August 3 - August 5, 1916. Following this victory, the Allied forces sought to eject the Turkish Canal Expeditionary Force from threatening the Suez Canal by removing them from Bir el Abd. On August 9, 1916, the indecisive action at Bir el Abd was fought leading to the Turkish withdrawal to El Arish while leaving a rear guard force at Bir el Mazar. [edit] British advance across the Sinai This attack convinced the British to push their defence of the Canal further out, into the Sinai, and so starting in October, the British under Lieutenant General Sir Charles Dobell began operations into the Sinai desert and on to the border of Palestine. Initial efforts were limited to building a railway and a waterline across the Sinai. After several months building up supplies and troops, the British were ready for an attack. The first battle was the capture of Magdhaba on December 23 1916. This was a success, the fort was captured. On January 8, 1917 the Anzac Mounted Division attacked the fort-town of Rafa. The attack was successful and the majority of the Turkish garrison was captured. The British had accomplished their objective of protecting the Suez Canal from Turkish attacks but the new government of David Lloyd George wanted more. [edit] Palestine campaign Turkish trenches at the shores of the Dead Sea, 1917. The British army in Egypt was ordered to go on the offensive against the Ottoman Turks in Palestine. In part this was to support the Arab revolt which had started early in 1916, in part this was to try and accomplish something positive after the years of fruitless battles on the Western Front. The British commander in Egypt, Sir Archibald Murray, suggested that he needed more troops and ships, but this request was refused. Assault on Gaza, 1917 The Ottoman forces were holding a rough line from the fort at Gaza, on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, to the town of Beersheba, which was the terminus of the Ottoman railway that extended north to Damascus. The British commander in the field, Dobell, choose to attack Gaza, using a short hook move on March 26, 1917. [edit] First Battle of Gaza Main article: First Battle of Gaza The British attack was essentially a failure. Due to mis-communication, some units

retreated when they should have held onto their gains and so the fortress was not taken. The government in London believed the reports from the field which indicated a substantial victory had been won and ordered General Murray to move on and capture Jerusalem. The British were in no position to attack Jerusalem as they first needed to break through the Ottoman defensive positions. These positions were rapidly improved and credit for the Turkish defence is given to the German chiefof-staff Baron Kress von Kressenstein. [edit] Second Battle of Gaza Main article: Second Battle of Gaza A second attack on the fort of Gaza was launched one month later on April 17, 1917. This attack, supported by naval gunfire, chlorine gas and even a few early tanks was also a failure. It was essentially a frontal assault on a fortified position, and it didn't work more through inflexibility in operations rather than plan but it cost of some 6,000 British casualties. As a result both General Dobell and General Murray were removed from command. The new man put in charge was General Sir Edmund Allenby and his orders were clear: take Jerusalem by Christmas. Allenby - after personally reviewing the Ottoman defensive positions - asked for more forces: three more infantry divisions, aircraft, and artillery. This request was granted and by October, 1917, the British were ready for their next attack. The Ottoman army had three active fronts at this time: Mesopotamia, Arabia, and the Gaza front. They also had substantial forces deployed around Constantinople and in the (now quiet) Caucasus front. Given all these demands, the army in Gaza was only about 35,000 strong, lead by the Ottoman General Kustafa and concentrated in three main defensive locations: Gaza, Tell Esh Sheria, and Beersheba. Allenby's army was now much larger, some 88,000 troops in good condition and well equipped. Many of the British forces were Anzacs from Australia and New Zealand. [edit] Battle of El Buggar Ridge Main article: Battle of El Buggar Ridge The occupation of Karm by the Allies on 22 October 1917 created a major point for supply and water for the troops in the immediate area. For the Ottoman forces, the placement of the station at Karm placed under threat the defensive positions known as the Hureira Redoubt and Rushdie System which formed a powerful bulwark against any Allied action. Karm Station pointed right to the heart of this system. To overcome this, General Erich von Falkenhayn, the Commander of the Yildirim Group, proposed a two phase attack. Firstly the plan called for a reconnaissance in force from Beersheba for 27 October which was to be followed by an all out attack launched by the 8th Army from Hureira, ironically scheduled to occur on the morning of 31 October 1917, the day when the Battle of Beersheba began. On the morning of 27 October, the battle began. [edit] Battle of Beersheba Main article: Battle of Beersheba A key feature to the British attack was to convince the Turks (and their German leaders) that once again, Gaza was to be attacked. This deception campaign was extremely thorough and convincing. The the Battle of El Buggar Ridge, launched by the Turks, completed the deception. When the Allies launched their attack on Beersheba, the Turks were taken by surprise. In one of the most remarkable feats of planning and execution, the Allies were able to move some 40,000 men and a

similar number of horses over hostile and inhospitable terrain without being detected by the Turks. The Turkish defeat at Beersheba on October 31 was not a complete rout. The Turks retreated into the hills and pre-prepared defensive positions to the north of Beersheba. For the Allies, the following days were spent fighting a difficult and bloody battle at Tel el Khuweilifeh, to the north east of Beersheba. Allenby's Offensive, November-December 1917 To break through the Turkish defensive line, the Allied forces attacked the Ottoman positions at Tel Esh Sheria on November 6 and followed this up with a further attack at Huj the following day, November 7. With the imminent collapse of Gaza at the same time, the Turks quickly retreated to a new line of defence. [edit] Third Battle of Gaza Main article: Third Battle of Gaza On the 7th, the British attacked Gaza for the 3rd time and this time, the Turks, worried about being cut off, retreated in the face of the British assault. Gaza had finally been captured. The Turkish defensive position was shattered, the Ottoman army was retreating in some disarray, General Allenby ordered his army to pursue the enemy. The British followed closely on the heels of the retreating Ottoman forces. An attempt by the Turks to form a defence of a place called Junction Station (Wadi Sarar) was foiled by a British attack November 13, 1917. General Falkenhayn next tried to form a new defensive line from Bethlehem to Jerusalem to Jaffa. The first British attack on Jerusalem failed but with a short rest and the gathering of more infantry divisions, Allenby tried again and on December 9, 1917 Jerusalem was captured. This was a major political event for the British government of David Lloyd George, one of the few real successes the British could point to after three long bloody years of war. On the Turkish side, this defeat marked the exit of Djemal Pasha back to Istanbul. Djemal had given real command to German officers like von Kressenstein and von Falkenhayn more than a year earlier but now, defeated like Enver Pasha was at the Battle of Sarikamis, he gave up even nominal command and returned to the capital. Less than a year remained before he was forced out of the government. General Falkenhayn was also replaced, in March 1918. [edit] The Final Year: Palestine and Syria Allenby's Final Attack, September 1918 The British government had hopes that the Ottoman Empire could be defeated early in the coming year with successful campaigns in Palestine and Mesopotamia but the Spring Offensive by the Germans on the Western Front delayed the expected attack on Syria for nine full months. General Allenby's army was largely redeployed to France and he was given brand new divisions recruited from India. These divisions spent the spring and summer of 1918 training. Because the British achieved complete control of the air with their new fighter planes, the Turks, and their new German commander General Liman von Sanders, had no clear idea where the British were going to attack. Compounding the problems, the Turks, at the direction of their War Minister Enver Pasha withdrew their best troops during the summer for the creation of Enver's Army of Islam, leaving behind poor quality, dispirited soldiers. T. E. Lawrence and his Arab fighters were of significant use during this time. His forces staged many hit-and-run attacks on Turkish supply lines and tied down thousands of soldiers in garrisons throughout Palestine, Jordan, and Syria.

[edit] Battle of Megiddo Main article: Battle of Megiddo (1918) General Allenby finally launched his long-delayed attack on September 19, 1918. The campaign has been called the Battle of Megiddo (which is a transliteration of the Hebrew name of an ancient town known in the west as Armageddon). Again, the British spent a great deal of effort to deceive the Turks as to their actual intended target of operations. This effort was, again, successful and the Turks were taken by surprise when the British attacked Meggido in a sudden storm. The Turkish troops started a full scale retreat, the British bombed the fleeing columns of men from the air and within a week, the Turkish army in Palestine had ceased to exist as a military force. From there it was decided to march off to Damascus. Two separate Allied columns marched towards Damascus. The first approached from Galilee composed of mainly cavalry, both Indian and Australian while the other column travelled along the Hejaz Railway northwards composed of Indian Cavalry and the ad hoc militia following T.E. Lawrence. Australian Light Horse troops marched unopposed into Damascus on October 1, 1918 despite there being some 12,000 Turkish soldiers at Baramke Barracks. Major Olden of the Australian 10th Light Horse Regiment received the Official Surrender of the City at 7 am at the Serai. Later that day, T.E. Lawrence and his ad hoc Arab militia entered Damascus to claim full credit for its capture. The war in Palestine was over but in Syria lasted for a further month. The Turkish government was quite prepared to sacrifice these non-Turkish provinces without surrendering. Indeed, while this battle was raging, the Turks sent an expeditionary force into Russia to enlarge the ethnic Turkish elements of the empire. It was only after the surrender of Bulgaria which put Turkey into a vulnerable position for invasion that the Turkish government compelled to sign an armistice on October 28, 1918 and outright surrendered two days later. 600 years of Ottoman rule over the Middle East had come to an end. [edit] In popular media This campaign has been depicted in several films. The most famous by far is Lawrence of Arabia (1962), though it focused primarily on T.E. Lawrence and the Arab Revolt. Other films dealing with this topic include Forty Thousand Horsemen (1941), and The Lighthorsemen (1987), with Peter Phelps and Nick Waters, both of which focused on the role of the ANZAC forces during the campaign. [edit] Summary The British lost a total of 550,000 casualties [citation needed] - more than 90% of these were not due to battle but instead due to disease, heat, etc. Total Turkish losses are unknown but almost certainly larger. They lost an entire army in the fighting and the Turks poured a vast number of troops into the front over the three years of combat. Military historians argue if this campaign by the British was worth the effort. In the opinion of General Esposito (the editor of the West Point Atlas of American Wars) This considerable subsidiary effort might have been put to better use on the more decisive Western front. Even so, the historical consequences of this campaign are hard to overestimate. The British conquest of Palestine led directly to the British mandate over Palestine and Trans-Jordan which, in turn, paved the way for the creation of the states of Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria.Gallipoli Star (Ottoman Empire) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Gallipoli Star badge.

The Ottoman War Medal (Turkish: Harp Madalyasi), better known as the Gallipoli Star, or the Iron Crescent (from German Eiserner Halbmond, in allusion to the Iron Cross) was a military decoration of the Ottoman Empire which was instituted by the Sultan Mehmed Reshad V on 1 March 1915 for gallantry in battle. This decoration was awarded for the duration of World War I to Ottoman and other Central Powers troops, primarily in Ottoman areas of engagement. Contents [hide] * * * *

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Design and composition Wear References Gallery

[edit] Design and composition The award includes a badge, ribbon and campaign bar. The medal, made of nickel-plated brass, has a vaulted star-shaped badge, 56 mm across the diagonal span of the arms. The tips of the star are capped by ball finials and enclosed in a raised silver edge with the field in red lacquer or enamel. A raised crescent, open at the top, encircles the center of the badge. Inside the crescent is the tughra or cipher of the decoration's creator, Sultan Mehmed Reshad V, over the date 1333 AH (AD 1915). The reverse is flat, unadorned and has a straight pin. Along with the badge came a ribbon with red and white stripes. The dimensions of the ribbon for combatants are: red 2.5 mm; white, 5 mm.; red, 29 mm.; white, 5 mm.; red 2.5 mm. For non-combatant awardees, the colors are reversed. The campaign bar is a right-pointing parabola of white at 56mm in length and 7mm in height. In the field is red Arabic script denoting the specific campaign: * * * * *

Chanakkale/Chanak (Gallipoli) Gaza Kanal Kut-al-Amara Sanatorium

[edit] Wear When in formal dress, the badge was worn at the center, below the right breast pocket. Wear of the badge was exclusive; in everyday wear was substituted by the ribbon. The ribbon was worn from the second hole in the tunic button. For Austrian and German awardees (usually members of the Asienkorps), the award took lower precedence to their own Iron Cross 2nd class, and the ribbon of the Iron Crescent was placed beneath that of the Iron Cross. The ribbon could also be fashioned into a chest riband for placement on a ribbon bar when in undress. The campaign bar was usually not worn.Modern history From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Merge arrow It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into modern

era. (Discuss) Modern Chronology * Modern (Europe, 18th century � 20th century) o Industrial Revolution (Europe 18th and 19th centuries) o Napoleonic Era, 1799�1815 o Victorian era (United Kingdom, 1837�1901) o Edwardian period (United Kingdom, 1901�1910) o Meiji era (Japan, 1868�1912) o World War I (Earth, 1914�1918) o Interwar period (Earth, 1918�1939*) o World War II (Earth, 1939*�1945) o Cold War (Soviet Union and United States, as well as Earth, 1945�1989) o Post-communist period (Russia, after 1991) Modern history describes the history of the Modern Times, the era after the Middle Ages. Contents [hide] * 1 Modernity * 2 As a subject o 2.1 Oxford * 3 References [edit] Modernity The concepts and ideas developed since then are part of Modernity. Modern history may contain references to the history of Early modern Europe from the turn of the 15th century until the late 18th century, but generally refers to the history of the world since the advent of the Age of Reason and the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The term should not be confused with modernism, a late 19th and early 20th century movement in art. [edit] As a subject Although many of the subjects of modern history coincide with that of standard history, the subject is taught in some parts of the world. A-level is the lowest tier of education at which modern history is taught in the UK, and students can also choose the subject at University. The material covered includes from the mid18th century, to analysis of the present day. Virtually all colleges and sixth forms that do teach modern history do it alongside standard history; very few teach the subject exclusively. [edit] Oxford At the University of Oxford 'Modern History' has a somewhat different meaning. The contrast is not with the Middle Ages but with Antiquity. The earliest period that can be studied in the Final Honour School of Modern History begins in 285.[1]History of Europe From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article's introduction may be too long. Please help by moving some material from it into the body of the article. Read the layout guide and Wikipedia's lead section guidelines for more information. Discuss this issue on the talk page.

Europe depicted by Antwerp cartographer Abraham Ortelius in 1595 The history of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day. For convenience sake, historians divide long periods into more manageable eras. The first evidence of Homo sapiens in Europe dates back to at least 35,000 BC, the European paleolithic period. When settlements, agriculture, and domesticated livestock appear would be the start of the neolithic, which in Europe would be around 7000 BC. From the earliest civilization with writing to the temporary disappearance of civilization around 1200 BC, the preferred metal for tools and weapons was bronze, and historians have labeled this the Bronze Age. Europe's classical antiquity dates from the reappearance of writing in Ancient Greece of around 700 BC. The Roman Republic was established in 509 BC. The Romans expanded their territorial control over Italy, then over the Mediterranean basin and western Europe. The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent around 150. The Christian religion became legal under the emperor Constantine in the early fourth century. Within a few generations, Christianity had become the official religion of the empire. The Vulgate Bible in Latin emerged just before the sack of Rome in 410 by a Germanic people, the Visigoths. These were the first of a number of tribes to move west and south from beyond Roman boundaries into former Roman territories. The last Roman emperor in the west was removed from power in 476. Southeastern Europe and some parts of the Mediterranean remained under the increasingly beleaguered Roman Empire, but ruled from Constantinople rather than Rome. Under the Emperor Justinian, Roman armies restored imperial rule to many parts of the Mediterranean, but this expansion began to erode in the later sixth century. As Constantinople's hold on western territories faltered, more Germanic peoples invaded and established kingdoms. Eastern Mediterranean territories remained largely in the hands of the Christian emperor in Constantinople through the sixth century. Historians generally label this remnant of the Roman Empire the Byzantine Empire. A serious threat to its power and lands was to emerge in the seventh century from an unexpected source: the Arabian peninsula and the newly united and converted peoples of Islam. In western Europe, many of the new states had only the Latin written language, some lingering Roman customs, and the Christian religion in common. Much of Christian territory in the west was brought under the rule of the Franks, particularly king Charlemagne, whom the pope crowned as western Emperor in 800. His territories were divided within two generations and Europe came under attack from three groups: Vikings of Scandinavia, Muslims from north Africa, and Magyars from Hungary. The response to these attacks differed; some regions united to deal with the threat, others divided. Starting in the mid-tenth century, the Muslim and Magyar threat to western Europe had diminished, but the Vikings remained entrenched or threatening for longest in the British Isles. A schism within the church in 1054 A.D. aggravated earlier divisions that emerged at the 451 Council of Chalcedon and was followed by the Crusades from the west to rescue the east from Muslim conquests that had begun to encroach on the Byzantines. However, the Crusades were not confined to recapturing Muslim lands taken in the East: Spain, southern France, Lithuania and other Pagan regions were consolidated under the papal power at this time. Feudal society began to break down as Mongol invaders broke through frontier areas in Europe and growing trade with other regions brought Black Death to first southern and then most of Europe.[1]. Complex feudal loyalties developed and nobles of most of the new nations were very closely related by intermarriage. Thanks largely to learning recovered from Muslim and Jewish scholars in Spain and the Mideast, and its own monastic traditions, Europe awoke from the medieval period through rediscovery of classical learning of the Greeks and Romans and a few key innovations from the Muslim world (including colleges, scientific medicine, copyright, guilds, the citation index and astronomy) - respected to this day by the wearing of caps and

gowns originally derived from learned Muslim scholars' attire at graduations. After the Renaissance consolidation of knowledge began to challenge some traditional doctrines in both science and theology, the Protestant Reformation began, as German priest Martin Luther attacked Papal authority. Simultaneously the turbulent love life, desire for a son, and political ambitions of Henry VIII sundered the English Church from that same authority and let the English ally more flexibly in the ensuing religious wars between German and Spanish rulers. The Reconquista of Spain and Portugal in 1492 and opening of the Americas to European colonization by Christopher Columbus simultaneously ended the Crusades east and began European colonization of the Americas west. However, religious wars continued until the Thirty Years War,[2], which was ended by the Peace of Westphalia; the Glorious Revolution consolidated that consensus. The combination of resource inflows from the New World and the Industrial Revolution, beginning in Great Britain, allowed the development of a new economy based more on manufacturing and trade and less on indigenous subsistence agriculture.[3] The early British Empire split as its colonies in America revolted to establish a representative government. Political change in continental Europe was spurred by the French Revolution, as people cried out for libert�, egalit�, fraternit�. The ensuing French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, conquered and reformed the social structure of the continent through war up to 1815. As more and more small property holders were granted the vote, in France and the UK, socialist and trade union activity developed and revolution gripped Europe in 1848. The last vestiges of serfdom were abolished in Austria-Hungary in 1848. Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861.[4] The Balkan nations began to regain their independence from the Ottoman Empire. After the Franco-Prussian War, Italy and Germany were formed from the groups of principalities in 1870 and 1871. Conflict spread across the globe, in a chase for empires, until the search climaxed with the outbreak of World War I. In the desperation of war and extreme poverty, the Russian Revolution promised "peace, bread and land", and radically altered the politics of Eastern Europe, and the world, up to the present day. The defeat of Germany came at the price of economic destruction, codified into the Treaty of Versailles, manifested in the Great Depression and the return to a Second World War. With the victory of capitalism and communism over fascism Western Europe now formed a free trade area, divided by the former Iron Curtain of the Soviet Union, which had formed a complex of communist police states. When the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, Europe signed a new treaty of union, which, as of 2007, encompasses 27 European countries with a population of over 400 million people. NATO, a post World War II military organization, also expanded to include states up to the border of Russia - the most unified and militarily dominant Europe since the first century Roman Empire. History of Europe Timeline 360 BC Plato attacks Athenian democracy in the Republic. 323 BC Alexander the Great dies and his Macedonian Empire fragments. 44 BC Julius Caesar is murdered. The Roman Republic drawing to a close. 27 BC Establishment of the Roman Empire under Octavian. AD 330 Constantine makes Constantinople into his capital, a new Rome. 395 Following the death of Theodosius I, the Empire is permanently split into eastern and western halves. 527 Justinian I is crowned emperor of Byzantium. 800 Coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor. 1054 Start of the East-West Schism, which divides the Christian church for centuries. 1066 Successful Norman Invasion of England by William the Conqueror. 1095 Pope Urban II calls for the First Crusade. 1340 Black Death kills a third of Europe's population. 1337 - 1453 The Hundred Years War 1453 Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. 1492 Christopher Columbus lands in the New World.

1498 Leonardo da Vinci paints The Last Supper in Milan, as the Renaissance flourishes. 1517 Martin Luther nails his demands for Reformation to the door of the church in Wittenberg. 1648 The Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War. 1789 The French Revolution. 1815 Following the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte the Treaty of Vienna is signed. 1860s Russia emancipates its serfs and Karl Marx completes the first volume of Das Kapital. 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria is assassinated and World War I begins. 1945 The World War II ends with Europe in ruins. 1989 - 1992 The Berlin Wall comes down and the Treaty of the European Union is signed in Maastricht. Contents [hide] * 1 Prehistory * 2 Classical Antiquity o 2.1 Ancient Greece o 2.2 The rise of Rome o 2.3 Late Antiquity and Migration period o 2.4 Decline of the Roman Empire * 3 Middle Ages o 3.1 Early Middle Ages + 3.1.1 A Byzantine light + 3.1.2 Feudal Christendom o 3.2 High Middle Ages + 3.2.1 A divided church + 3.2.2 Holy wars o 3.3 Late Middle Ages * 4 Early Modern Europe o 4.1 Renaissance o 4.2 Reformation o 4.3 Exploration and Conquest o 4.4 Enlightenment * 5 1789 to 1914 o 5.1 Industrial revolution o 5.2 Political revolution o 5.3 Nations rising o 5.4 Empires * 6 1914 to 1991 o 6.1 Apocalypse o 6.2 Cold War * 7 Recent history * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 External links [edit] Prehistory Main article: Prehistoric Europe Further information: Palaeolithic Europe, Mesolithic Europe, Neolithic Europe, Stone Age, Bronze Age Europe, and Iron age Europe Europe's physical landscape Homo erectus and Neanderthals migrated from Africa to Europe after the emergence of modern humans, Homo sapiens. The bones of the earliest Europeans are found in Dmanisi, Georgia, dated at 1.8 million years before the present. The earliest appearance of anatomically modern people in Europe has been dated to 35,000 BC.

Evidence of permanent settlement dates from the 7th millennium BC in the Balkans. The Neolithic reached Central Europe in the 6th millennium BC and parts of Northern Europe in the 5th and 4th millennium BC. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture 5508-2750 BC was the first big civilization in Europe and among the earliest in the world. Starting from Neolithic we have the civilization of the Camunni in Valle Camonica, Italy, that left to us more than 350,000 petroglyphs, the biggest site in Europe. Also known as the Copper Age, European Chalcolithic is a time of changes and confusion. The most relevant fact is the infiltration and invasion of large parts of the territory by people originating from Central Asia, considered by mainstream scholars to be the original Indo-Europeans, although there are again several theories in dispute. Other phenomena are the expansion of Megalithism and the appearance of the first significant economic stratification and, related to this, the first known monarchies in the Balkan region. The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was that of the Minoans of the island of Crete and later the Mycenaens in the adjacent parts of Greece, starting at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Though the use of iron was known to the Aegean peoples about 1100 BCE, it didn't reach Central Europe before 800 BCE, giving way to the Hallstatt culture, an Iron Age evolution of the culture of the Urn Fields. Probably as by-product of this technological peculiarity of the Indo-Europeans, soon after, they clearly consolidate their positions in Italy and Iberia, penetrating deep inside those peninsulas (Rome founded in 753 BCE). [edit] Classical Antiquity Main article: Classical Antiquity Roman expansion by stages from 264 BC to 180 AD The Greeks and the Romans left a legacy in Europe which is evident in current language, thought, law and minds. Ancient Greece was a collection of city-states, out of which the original form of democracy developed. Athens was the most powerful and developed city, and a cradle of learning from the time of Pericles. Citizens forums debated and legislated policy of the state, and from here arose some of the most notable classical philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the last of whom taught Alexander the Great. The king of the Greek kingdom of Macedon, Alexander's military campaigns spread Hellenistic culture and learning to the banks of the River Indus. But the Roman Republic, strengthened through victory over Carthage in the Punic Wars was rising in the region. Greek wisdom passed into Roman institutions, as Athens itself was absorbed under the banner of the Senate and People of Rome (Senatus Populusque Romanus). The Romans expanded from Arabia to Britannia. In 44 BC as it approached its height, its leader Julius Caesar was murdered on suspicion of subverting the Republic, to become dictator. In the ensuing turmoil, Octavian usurped the reins of power and bought the Roman Senate. While proclaiming the rebirth of the Republic, he had in fact ushered in the transfer of the Roman state from a republic to an empire, Roman Empire. [edit] Ancient Greece Main articles: Ancient Greece and Hellenistic period A mosaic showing Alexander the Great battling Darius III The Hellenic civilization took the form of a collection of city-states, or poleis (the most important being Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, and Syracuse), having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are unprecedented developments in various governmental forms, philosophy, science,

mathematics, politics, sports, theatre and music. Athens, the most powerful citystate, governed itself with an early form of direct democracy founded by Athenian noble Cleisthenes. In Athenian democracy, the citizens of Athens themselves voted on legistlation and executive bills in their own right. From here arose Socrates, considered one of the founders of Western philosophy.[5] Socrates also created the Socratic Method, or elenchus, a type of pedagogy used to this day in philosophical teaching, in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. Due to this philosophy, Socrates was put on trial and sentenced to death for "corrupting the youth" of Athens, as his discussions conflicted with the established religious beliefs of the time. Plato, a pupil of Socrates and founder of the Platonic Academy, recorded this episode in his writings, and went on to develop his own unique philosophy, Platonism. The Parthenon, an ancient Athenian Temple on the Acropolis (hill-top city) fell to Rome in 176 BC The Hellenic city-states founded a large number of colonies on the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean sea, Asia Minor, Sicily and Southern Italy in Magna Graecia, but in the 5th century BC their eastward expansions led to retaliation from the Achaemenid Persian Empire. In the Greco-Persian Wars, the Hellenic city-states formed an alliance and defeated the Persian Empire at the Battle of Plataea, repelling the Persian invasions. The Greeks formed the Delian League to continue fighting Persia, but Athens' position as leader of this league led to Sparta forming the rival Peloponnesian League. The two leagues began the Peloponnesian War over leadership of Greece, leaving the Peloponnesian League as the victor. Discontent with the Spartan hegemony that followed led to the Corinthian War where an alliance led by Thebes crushed Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra. Continued Hellenic infighting made Greek city states easy prey for king Philip II of Macedon, who united all the Greek city states. The campaigns of his son Alexander the Great spread Greek culture into Persia, Egypt and India, but also favoured contact with the older learnings of those countries, opening up a new period of development, known as Hellenism. Alexander died in 323 BC, splitting his empire into many Hellenistic civilizations. [edit] The rise of Rome Main articles: Ancient Rome, Roman Republic, and Roman Empire Cicero addresses the Roman Senate to denounce Catiline's conspiracy to overthrow the Republic, by Cesare Maccari Much of Greek learning was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only real challenge to Roman ascent came from the Phoenician colony of Carthage, and its defeat in the end of the 3rd century BC marked the start of Roman hegemony. First governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the Roman Republic), Rome finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under Augustus and his authoritarian successors. The Roman Empire had its centre in the Mediterranean Sea, controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the Rhine and Danube rivers. Under emperor Trajan (2nd century AD) the empire reached its maximum expansion, controlling approximately 5,900,000 km� (2,300,000 sq mi) of land surface, including Britain, Romania and parts of Mesopotamia. The empire brought peace, civilization and an efficient centralized government to the subject territories, but in the 3rd century a series of civil wars undermined its economic and social strength. In the 4th century, the emperors Diocletian and Constantine were able to slow down the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western and an Eastern part. Whereas Diocletian severely persecuted Christianity, Constantine declared an official end to state-sponsored persecution of Christians in 313 with the Edict of Milan, thus setting the stage for the empire to later become officially Christian in about 380 (which would cause the

Church to become an important institution). [edit] Late Antiquity and Migration period Main articles: Late Antiquity and Migration period In 526 Europe under gothic control, and 600 with Byzantium at its height When Emperor Constantine had reconquered Rome under the banner of the cross in 312, he soon afterwards issued the Edict of Milan in 313, declaring the legality of Christianity in the Roman Empire. In addition, Constantine officially shifted the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek town of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople ("City of Constantine"). In 395 Theodosius I, who had made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, would be the last emperor to preside over a united Roman Empire, and from thenceforth, the empire would be split into two halves: the Western Roman Empire centered in Ravenna, and the Eastern Roman Empire (later to be referred to as the Byzantine Empire) centered in Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire was repeatedly attacked by marauding Germanic tribes (see: Migration Period), and in 476 finally fell to the Heruli chieftan Odoacer. Roman authority in the West completely collapsed and the western provinces soon became a patchwork of Germanic kingdoms. However, the city of Rome, under the guidance of the Roman Catholic Church, still remained a centre of learning, and did much to preserve classic Roman thought in Western Europe. In the meantime, the Roman emperor in Constantinople, Justinian I, had succeeded in codifying all Roman law into the Corpus Juris Civilis (529-534). For the duration of the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire was embroiled in a series of deadly conflicts, first with the Persian Sassanid Empire (see Roman-Persian Wars), followed by the onslaught of the arising Islamic Caliphate (Rashidun and Umayyad). By 650, the provinces of Egypt, Palestine and Syria were lost to the Muslim forces, followed by Hispania and southern Italy in the 7th and 8th centuries (see Muslim conquests). In Western Europe, a political structure was emerging: in the power vacuum left in the wake of Rome's collapse, localised hierarchies were based on the bond of common people to the land on which they worked. Tithes were paid to the lord of the land, and the lord owed duties to the regional prince. The tithes were used to pay for the state and wars. This was the feudal system, in which new princes and kings arose, the greatest of which was the Frank ruler Charlemagne. In 800, Charlemagne, reinforced by his massive territorial conquests, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) by Pope Leo III, effectively solidifying his power in western Europe. Charlemagne's reign marked the beginning of a new Germanic Roman Empire in the west, the Holy Roman Empire. Outside his borders, new forces were gathering. The Kievan Rus' were marking out their territory, a Great Moravia was growing, while the Angles and the Saxons were securing their borders. [edit] Decline of the Roman Empire Main article: Decline of the Roman Empire Further information: Crisis of the third century Romulus Augustus surrendering to the Germanic in 476 The Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally fell. Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire surrendered to the Germanic King Odoacer. British historian Edward Gibbon argued in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776) that the Romans had become decadent, they had lost civic virtue. Gibbon said that the adoption of Christianity, meant belief in a better life after death, and therefore made people lazy and indifferent to the present. "From the eighteenth century onward", Glen W. Bowersock has remarked,[6] "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears." It remains one of the greatest historical questions,

and has a tradition rich in scholarly interest. Some other notable dates are the Battle of Adrianople in 378, the death of Theodosius I in 395 (the last time the Roman Empire was politically unified), the crossing of the Rhine in 406 by Germanic tribes after the withdrawal of the legions in order to defend Italy against Alaric I, the death of Stilicho in 408, followed by the disintegration of the western legions, the death of Justinian I, the last Roman Emperor who tried to reconquer the west, in 565, and the coming of Islam after 632. Many scholars maintain that rather than a "fall", the changes can more accurately be described as a complex transformation.[7] Over time many theories have been proposed on why the Empire fell, or whether indeed it fell at all. [edit] Middle Ages Main article: Middle Ages Further information: Medieval demography The Middle Ages are commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (or by some scholars, before that) in the 5th century to the beginning of the Early Modern Period in the 16th century, marked by the rise of nation-states, the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the Columbian Exchange.[8] The Middle Ages witnessed the first sustained urbanization of northern and western Europe. Many modern European states owe their origins to events unfolding in the Middle Ages; present European political boundaries are, in many regards, the result of the military and dynastic achievements during this tumultuous period. [edit] Early Middle Ages Main article: Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages span roughly five centuries from 500 to 1000.[9] During this period, most of Europe was Christianized, and the "Dark Ages" following the fall of Rome, the establishment of the Frankish Empire by the 9th century gave rise to the Carolingian Renaissance on the continent. Europe still remained a backwater compared to the rising Muslim world, with its vast network of caravan trade, or India with its Golden Period under the Gupta Empire and the Pratiharas or China, at this time the world's most populous empire under the Song Dynasty. By AD 1000, Constantinople had a population of about 300,000, but Rome had a mere 35,000 and Paris 20,000. Islam had over a dozen major cities stretching from C�rdoba, Spain, at this time the world's largest city with 450,000 inhabitants, to central Asia. [edit] A Byzantine light Main article: Byzantine Empire Constantine I and Justinian I offering their fealty to the Virgin Mary inside the Hagia Sophia Many consider Emperor Constantine I (reigned 306�337) to be the first "Byzantine Emperor". It was he who moved the imperial capital in 324 from Nicomedia to Byzantium, refounded as Constantinople, or Nova Roma ("New Rome").[10] The city of Rome itself had not served as the capital since the reign of Diocletian. Some date the beginnings of the Empire to the reign of Theodosius I (379�395) and Christianity's official supplanting of the Pagan Roman religion, or following his death in 395, when the political division between East and West became permanent. Others place it yet later in 476, when Romulus Augustulus, traditionally considered the last western Emperor, was deposed, thus leaving sole imperial authority with the emperor in the Greek East. Others point to the reorganization

of the empire in the time of Heraclius (ca. 620) when Latin titles and usages were officially replaced with Greek versions. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of hellenization and increasing Christianization was already under way. The Empire is generally considered to have ended after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Plague of Justinian was a pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541�542. It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people across the world.[11][12] It caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between 541 and 700.[13] It also may have contributed to the success of the Arab conquests.[14][15] [edit] Feudal Christendom Main articles: Holy Roman Empire, Charlemagne, Caliphate of C�rdoba, Bulgarian Empire, Great Moravia, and Kievan Rus' In 814 the Frankish Empire reached its peak, while Byzantium had before Islamic conquest Pope Hadrian I asks Charlemagne, King of the Franks for assistance against invasion in 772 The Holy Roman Empire emerged around 800, as Charlemagne, king of the Franks, was crowned by the pope as emperor. His empire based in modern France, the Low Countries and Germany expanded into modern Hungary, Italy, Bohemia, Lower Saxony and Spain. He and his father received substantial help from an alliance with the Pope, who wanted help against the Lombards. The pope was officially a vassal of the Byzantine Empire, but the Byzantine emperor did (could do) nothing against the Lombards. To the east Bulgaria was established in 681 and became the first Slavic country. The powerful Bulgarian Empire was the main rival of Byzantium for control of the Balkans for centuries and from the 9th century became the cultural center of Slavic Europe. Two states, Great Moravia and Kievan Rus', emerged among the Western and Eastern Slavs respectively in the 9th century. In the late 9th century and 10th century, northern and western Europe felt the burgeoning power and influence of the Vikings who raided, traded, conquered and settled swiftly and efficiently with their advanced sea-going vessels such as the longships. The Hungarians pillaged mainland Europe, the Pechenegs raided eastern Europe and the Arabs the south. In the 10th century independent kingdoms were established in Central Europe, for example, Poland and Kingdom of Hungary. Hungarians had stopped their pillaging campaigns; prominent nation states also included Croatia and Serbia in the Balkans. The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further growth of feudalism, which weakened the Holy Roman Empire. [edit] High Middle Ages Main article: High Middle Ages In 1097, as the First Crusade to the Holy land commences The slumber of the Dark Ages was shaken by renewed crisis in the Church. In 1054, a schism, an insoluble split, between the two remaining Christian seats in Rome and Constantinople. The High Middle Ages of the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries show a rapidly increasing population of Europe, which brought about great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250, the robust population increase greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century. From about the year 1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of

the barbarian invasions and became more politically organized. The Vikings had settled in the British Isles, France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The Magyars had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, a Christian Kingdom of Hungary was recognized in central Europe. With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions, major barbarian incursions ceased. In the 11th century, populations north of the Alps began to settle new lands, some of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the Roman Empire. In what is known as the "great clearances," vast forests and marshes of Europe were cleared and cultivated. At the same time settlements moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the Frankish Empire to new frontiers in eastern Europe, beyond the Elbe River, tripling the size of Germany in the process. Crusaders founded European colonies in the Levant, the majority of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered from the Moors, and the Normans colonized southern Italy, all part of the major population increase and resettlement pattern. The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and artistic works. This age saw the rise of modern nation-states in Western Europe and the ascent of the great Italian city-states. The still-powerful Roman Church called armies from across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuk Turks, who occupied the Holy Land. The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle led Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers to develop the philosophy of Scholasticism. In architecture, many of the most notable Gothic cathedrals were built or completed during this era. [edit] A divided church Main articles: East-West Schism and Norman Invasion The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Battle of Hastings and the events leading to it. The Great Schism between the Western and Eastern Christian Churches was sparked in 1054 by Pope Leo IX asserting authority over three of the seats in the Pentarchy, in Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Since the mid eighth century, the Byzantine Empire's borders had been shrinking in the face of Islamic expansion. Antioch had been wrested back into Byzantine control by 1045, but the resurgent power of the Roman successors in the West claimed a right and a duty for the lost seats in Asia and Africa. Pope Leo sparked a further dispute by defending the filioque clause in the Nicene Creed which the West had adopted customarily. Eastern Orthodox today state that the 28th Canon of the Fourth Ecumenical Council explicitly proclaimed the equality of the Bishops of Rome and Constantinople. The Orthodox also state that the Bishop of Rome has authority only over his own diocese and does not have any authority outside his diocese. There were other less significant catalysts for the Schism however, including variance over liturgical. The Schism of Catholic and Orthodox followed centuries of estrangement between Latin and Greek worlds. Further changes were set afoot with a redivision of power in Europe. William the Conqueror, a Duke of Normandy invaded England in 1066. The Norman Conquest was a pivotal event in English history for several reasons. This linked England more closely with continental Europe through the introduction of a Norman aristocracy, thereby lessening Scandinavian influence. It created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe and engendered a sophisticated governmental system. Being based on an island, moreover, England was to develop a powerful navy and trade relationships that would come to constitute a vast part of the world including India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and many key naval strategic points like Bermuda, Suez, Hong Kong and especially Gibraltar. These strategic advantages grew and were to prove decisive until after World War II. [edit] Holy wars

Main articles: Crusades, Reconquista, and Magna Carta A mitred Adh�mar de Monteil carrying the Holy Lance in one of the battles of the First Crusade After the East-West Schism, Western Christianity was adopted by newly created kingdoms of Central Europe: Poland, Hungary and Bohemia. The Roman Catholic Church developed as a major power, leading to conflicts between the Pope and Emperor. In 1129 AD the Roman Catholic Church established the Inquisition to make Western Europeans Roman Catholic by force. The Inquisition punished those who practised heresy (heretics) to make them repent. If they could not do so, the penalty was death. During this time many Lords and Nobles ruled the church. The Monks of Cluny worked hard to establish a church where there were no Lords or Nobles ruling it. They succeeded. Pope Gregory VII continued the work of the monks with 2 main goals, to rid the church of control by kings and nobles and to increase the power of the pope. The area of the Roman Catholic Church expanded enormously due to conversions of Pagan kings (Scandinavia, Lithuania, Poland, Hungary), Christian reconquista of Al-Andalus, and crusades. Most of Europe was Roman Catholic in the 15th century. Early signs of the rebirth of civilization in western Europe began to appear in the 11th century as trade started again in Italy, leading to the economic and cultural growth of independent city states such as Venice and Florence; at the same time, nation-states began to take form in places such as France, England, Spain, and Portugal, although the process of their formation (usually marked by rivalry between the monarchy, the aristocratic feudal lords and the church) actually took several centuries. These new nation-states began writing in their own cultural vernaculars, instead of the traditional Latin. Notable figures of this movement would include Dante Alighieri and Christine de Pisan (born Christina da Pizzano), the former writing in Italian, and the latter although an Italian (Venice) relocated to France and wrote in French.(See Reconquista for the latter two countries.) On the other hand, the Holy Roman Empire, essentially based in Germany and Italy, further fragmented into a myriad of feudal principalities or small city states, whose subjection to the emperor was only formal. The 13th and 14th century, when the Mongol Empire came to power, is often called the Age of the Mongols. Mongol armies expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan. Their western conquests included almost all of Russia (save Novgorod, which became a vassal),[16] Kipchak lands, Hungary, and Poland (Which had remained sovereign state). Mongolian records indicate that Batu Khan was planning a complete conquest of the remaining European powers, beginning with a winter attack on Austria, Italy and Germany, when he was recalled to Mongolia upon the death of Great Khan �gedei. Most historians believe only his death prevented the complete conquest of Europe[citation needed]. In Russia, the Mongols of the Golden Horde ruled for almost 250 years. [edit] Late Middle Ages Main article: Late Middle Ages Further information: Lex Mercatoria, Hundred Years War, and Fall of Constantinople Europe in 1400 Europe in 1477 The Late Middle Ages span the 14th and 15th centuries. Around 1300, centuries of European prosperity and growth came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the Great Famine of 1315�1317 and the Black Death, reduced the population by as much as half according to some estimates. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. France and England experienced serious peasant risings: the Jacquerie, the Peasants' Revolt, and the Hundred Years' War. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered

by the Great Schism. Collectively these events are sometimes called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages.[17] Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts led to what has later been termed the Italian Renaissance. Toward the end of the period, an era of discovery began. The growth of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, cut off trading possibilities with the east. Europeans were forced to discover new trading routes, as was the case with Columbus�s travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama�s circumnavigation of India and Africa in 1498. Monks infected with plague given a priest's blessing One of the largest catastrophes to have hit Europe was the Black Death. There were numerous outbreaks, but the most severe was in the mid-1300s and is estimated to have killed a third of Europe's population. Beginning in the 14th century, the Baltic Sea became one of the most important trade routes. The Hanseatic League, an alliance of trading cities, facilitated the absorption of vast areas of Poland, Lithuania and other Baltic countries into the economy of Europe. This fed the growth of powerful states in Eastern Europe including Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, and Muscovy. The conventional end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the fall of the city Constantinople and of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Turks made the city the capital of their Ottoman Empire, which lasted until 1922 and also included Egypt, Syria and most of the Balkans. The Ottoman wars in Europe, also sometimes referred as the Turkish wars, marked an essential part of the history of southeastern Europe. * Hanseatic League, Marco Polo, Lex Mercatoria, History of trade * Western Schism (1378-1417) * Hundred Years War, Joan of Arc [edit] Early Modern Europe Main article: Early Modern Europe Further information: Renaissance, Protestant Reformation, Baroque, Age of Enlightenment, Scientific revolution, Great divergence, and European miracle Europe in 1519 Europe as a Queen, 1570 print by Sebastian Munster of Basel. Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man depicts his vision for the perfectly proportioned man. The Early Modern period spans the three centuries between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution, roughly from 1500 to 1800, or from the discovery of the New World in 1492 to the French Revolution in 1789. The period is characterized by the rise to importance of science and increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics and the nation state. Capitalist economies began their rise, beginning in northern Italian republics such as Genoa. The early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of mercantilism. As such, the early modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism, serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the Protestant Reformation, the disastrous Thirty Years' War, the European colonization of the Americas and the European witch-hunts. [edit] Renaissance Main article: Renaissance

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the north and west during a cultural lag of some two and a half centuries, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, history, religion, and other aspects of intellectual enquiry. The Italian Petrarch (Francesco di Petracco), deemed the first full-blooded Humanist, wrote in the 1330s: "I am alive now, yet I would rather have been born in another time." He was enthusiastic about Greek and Roman antiquity. In the 15th and 16th centuries the continuing enthusiasm for the ancients was reinforced by the feeling that the inherited culture was dissolving and here was a storehouse of ideas and attitudes with which to rebuild. Matteo Palmieri wrote in the 1430s: "Now indeed may every thoughtful spirit thank god that it has been permitted to him to be born in a new age." The renaissance was born: a new age where learning was very important. The Renaissance was inspired by the growth in study of Latin and Greek texts and the admiration of the Greco-Roman era as a golden age. This prompted many artists and writers to begin drawing from Roman and Greek examples for their works, but there was also much innovation in this period, especially by multi-faceted artists such as Leonardo da Vinci. Many Roman and Greek texts were already in existence in the European Middle Ages. The monks had copied and recopied the old texts and housed them for a millennium, but they had regarded them in another light. Many more flowed in with the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople while other Greek and Roman texts came from Islamic sources, who had inherited the ancient Greek and Roman texts and knowledge through conquest, even attempting to improve upon some of them.[citation needed] With the usual pride of advanced thinkers, the Humanists saw their repossession of a great past as a Renaissance -- a rebirth of civilization itself. Important political precedents were also set in this period. Niccol� Machiavelli's political writing in The Prince influenced later absolutism and real-politik. Also important were the many patrons who ruled states and used the artistry of the Renaissance as a sign of their power. In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought -- the immediate past being too "Gothic" in language, thought and sensiblility. [edit] Reformation Main article: Protestant Reformation The Ninety-Five Theses of German monk Martin Luther which broke Papal autocracy During this period corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the Protestant Reformation. It gained many followers especially among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of the Catholic Church. Figures other than Martin Luther began to emerge as well like John Calvin whose Calvinism had influence in many countries and King Henry VIII of England who broke away from the Catholic Church in England and set up the Anglican Church(Contrary to polular belief this only half true, his daughter Queen Elizabeth finished the organization of the church). These religious divisions brought on a wave of wars inspired and driven by religion but also by the ambitious monarchs in Western Europe who were becoming more centralized and powerful. The Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform movement in the Catholic Church called the Counter-Reformation, which aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen Catholic Dogma. An important group in the Catholic

Church who emerged from this movement were the Jesuits who helped keep Eastern Europe within the Catholic fold. Still, the Catholic Church was somewhat weakened by the Reformation, portions of Europe were no longer under its sway and kings in the remaining Catholic countries began to take control of the Church institutions within their kingdoms. Unlike Western Europe, the countries of Central Europe, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Hungary, were more tolerant. While still enforcing the predominance of Catholicism they continued to allow the large religious minorities to maintain their faiths. Central Europe became divided between Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox and Jews. Another important development in this period was the growth of pan-European sentiments. Em�ric Cruc� (1623) came up with the idea of the European Council, intended to end wars in Europe; attempts to create lasting peace were no success, although all European countries (except the Russian and Ottoman Empires, regarded as foreign) agreed to make peace in 1518 at the Treaty of London. Many wars broke out again in a few years. The Reformation also made European peace impossible for many centuries. Another development was the idea of European superiority. The ideal of civilization was taken over from the ancient Greeks and Romans: discipline, education and living in the city were required to make people civilized; Europeans and non-Europeans were judged for their civility, and Europe regarded itself as superior to other continents. There was a movement by some such as Montaigne that regarded the non-Europeans as a better, more natural and primitive people. Post services were founded all over Europe, which allowed a humanistic interconnected network of intellectuals across Europe, despite religious divisions. However, the Roman Catholic church banned many leading scientific works; this led to an intellectual advantage for Protestant countries, where the banning of books was regionally organized. Francis Bacon and other advocates of science tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in nature.1 In the 15th century, at the end of the Middle Ages, powerful states were appearing, built by the New Monarchs who were centralizing power in France, England, and Spain. On the other hand the Parliament in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. The new state power was contested by parliaments in other countries especially England. New kinds of states emerged which were cooperations between territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights. [edit] Exploration and Conquest Main articles: Mercantilism and Age of Discovery A seaport of the Villa Medici in 1638 by Claude Lorrain The numerous wars did not prevent the new states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, particularly in Asia (Siberia) and the newlydiscovered Americas. In the 15th century, Portugal led the way in geographical exploration, followed by Spain in the early 16th century. They were the first states to set up colonies in America and trade stations on the shores of Africa and Asia, but they were soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands. In 1552, Russian tsar Ivan the Terrible conquered two major Tatar khanates, Kazan and Astrakhan, and the Yermak's voyage of 1580 led to the annexation of Siberia into Russia. Colonial expansion proceeded in the following centuries (with some setbacks, such as successful wars of independence in the British American colonies and then later Mexico, Brazil, and others surrounding the Napoleonic Wars). Spain had control of part of North America and a great deal of Central America and South America, the Caribbean and the Philippines; Britain took the whole of Australia and New Zealand, most of India, and large parts of Africa and North America; France held parts of Canada and India (nearly all of which was lost to Britain in 1763),

Indochina, large parts of Africa and Caribbean islands; the Netherlands gained the East Indies (now Indonesia) and islands in the Caribbean; Portugal obtained Brazil and several territories in Africa and Asia; and later, powers such as Germany, Belgium, Italy and Russia acquired further colonies. This expansion helped the economy of the countries owning them. Trade flourished, because of the minor stability of the empires. By the late 16th century American silver accounted for one-fifth of the Spain's total budget.[18] The European countries fought wars that were largely paid for by the money coming in from the colonies. Nevertheless, the profits of the slave trade and of plantations of the West Indies, most profitable of all the British colonies at that time, amounted to less than 5% of the British Empire's economy (but was generally more profitable) at the time of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century. [edit] Enlightenment Main article: Age of Enlightenment The Battle of N�rdlingen in the Thirty Years' War. Throughout the early part of this period, capitalism (through Mercantilism) was replacing feudalism as the principal form of economic organization, at least in the western half of Europe. The expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a Commercial Revolution. The period is noted for the rise of modern science and the application of its findings to technological improvements, which culminated in the Industrial Revolution. Iberian (Spain and Portugal) exploits of the New World, which started with Christopher Columbus's venture westward in search of a quicker trade route to the East Indies in 1492, was soon challenged by English and French[19] exploits in North America. New forms of trade and expanding horizons made new forms of government, law and economics necessary. The Reformation had profound effects on the unity of Europe. Not only were nations divided one from another by their religious orientation, but some states were torn apart internally by religious strife, avidly fostered by their external enemies. France suffered this fate in the 16th century in the series of conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion, which ended in the triumph of the Bourbon Dynasty. England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under Elizabeth to a moderate Anglicanism. Much of modern day Germany was made up of numerous small sovereign states under the theoretical framework of the Holy Roman Empire, which was further divided along internally drawn sectarian lines. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is notable in this time for its religious indifference and a general immunity to the horrors of European religious strife. The Thirty Years' War was fought between 1618 and 1648, principally on the territory of today's Germany, and involved most of the major European powers. Beginning as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, it gradually developed into a general war involving much of Europe, for reasons not necessarily related to religion.[20] The major impact of the war, in which mercenary armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Episodes of widespread famine and disease devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the Low Countries and Italy, while bankrupting many of the regional powers involved. Between one-fourth and one-third of the German population perished from direct military causes or from illness and starvation related to the war.[21] The war lasted for thirty years, but the conflicts that triggered it continued unresolved for a much longer time. After the Peace of Westphalia, Europe's borders were still stable in 1708 After the Peace of Westphalia which ended the war in favour of nations deciding their own religious allegiance, Absolutism became the norm of the continent, while

parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the English Civil War and particularly the Glorious Revolution. European military conflict did not cease, but had less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced north-west, the Enlightenment gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of literacy, made possible by the printing press, created new secular forces in thought. Again, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth would be an exception to this rule, with its unique quasi-democratic Golden Freedom. Eastern Europe was an arena of conflict for domination between Sweden, the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies, Russia, Prussia and Austria. By the turn of the 19th century they became new powers, having divided Poland between them, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively. Numerous Polish Jews emigrated to Western Europe, founding Jewish communities in places where they had been expelled from during the Middle Ages. [edit] 1789 to 1914 See also: Nineteenth century In 1815 Europe's borders were resettled, its roots shaken up by Napoleon's armies The "long nineteenth century", from 1789 to 1914 sees the drastic social, political and economic changes initiated by the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, and following the re-organization of the political map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the rise of Nationalism, the rise of the Russian Empire and the peak of the British Empire, paralleled by the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the rise of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire initiated the course of events that culminated in the outbreak of World War I in 1914. [edit] Industrial revolution Main article: Industrial revolution London's chimney sky in 1870, by Gustave Dor� The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transport had a profound effect on socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain and subsequently spread throughout Europe and North America and eventually the world, a process that continues as industrialisation. In the later part of the 1700s the manual labour based economy of the Kingdom of Great Britain began to be replaced by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery. It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Once started it spread. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.[22] The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous.[23] See also: Steam engine, Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx, History of economic thought, and History of rail transport [edit] Political revolution Main articles: American Revolution, French Revolution, and Napoleonic Wars The storming of the Bastille in the French Revolution of 1789

French intervention in the American Revolutionary War had bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, Louis XVI was persuaded to convene the Estates-General, a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The members of the EstatesGeneral assembled in the Palace of Versailles in May 1789, but the debate as to which voting system should be used soon became an impasse. Come June, the third estate, joined by members of the other two, declared itself to be a National Assembly and swore an oath not to dissolve until France had a constitution and created, in July, the National Constituent Assembly. At the same time the people of Paris revolted, famously storming the Bastille prison on 14 July 1789. At the time the assembly wanted to create a constitutional monarchy, and over the following two years passed various laws including the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the abolition of feudalism, and a fundamental change in the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king went along with these changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people, but as anti-royalism increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king, stripped of his power, decided to flee along with his family. He was recognized and brought back to Paris. On 12 January 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was executed. On 20 September 1792 the National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Due to the emergency of war the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, controlled by Maximilien Robespierre of the Jacobin Club, to act as the country's executive. Under Robespierre the committee initiated the Reign of Terror, during which up to 40,000 people were executed in Paris, mainly nobles, and those convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal, often on the flimsiest of evidence. Elsewhere in the country, counter-revolutionary insurrections were brutally suppressed. The regime was overthrown in the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794) and Robespierre was executed. The regime which followed ended the Terror and relaxed Robespierre's more extreme policies. The Battle of Waterloo, where Napoleon was defeated by the Duke of Wellington in 1815 Napoleon Bonaparte was France's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy and forced the Austrians to sue for peace. In 1799 he returned from Egypt and on 18 Brumaire (9 November) overthrew the government, replacing it with the Consulate, in which he was First Consul. On 2 December 1804, after a failed assassination plot, he crowned himself Emperor. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria (Third Coalition), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time failure to lure the superior British fleet away from the English Channel, ending in a decisive French defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October put an end to hopes of an invasion of Britain. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austria's withdrawal from the coalition (see Treaty of Pressburg) and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up, on 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of JenaAuerstedt, marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on 14 June 1807 at Friedland, the Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw. On 12 June 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia with a Grande Arm�e of nearly 700,000 troops. After the measured victories at Smolensk and Borodino Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian Army, he was forced to withdraw, on the march back his army was harassed by Cossacks, and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20,000 of his men survived the campaign. By 1813 the tide had begun to turn from Napoleon, having been defeated by a seven nation army

at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813. He was forced to abdicate after the Six Days Campaign and the occupation of Paris, under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the Island of Elba. He returned to France on 1 March 1815 (see Hundred Days), raised an army, but was comprehensively defeated by a British and Prussian force at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. [edit] Nations rising Main articles: Italian unification, Franco-Prussian War, Crimean War, and Revolutions of 1848 Cheering the Revolutions of 1848 in Berlin After the defeat of revolutionary France, the other great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna, the major powers of Europe managed to produce a peaceful balance of power among the empires after the Napoleonic wars (despite the occurrence of internal revolutionary movements) under the Metternich system. However, their efforts were unable to stop the spread of revolutionary movements: the middle classes had been deeply influenced by the ideals of democracy of the French revolution, the Industrial Revolution brought important economical and social changes, the lower classes started to be influenced by socialist, communist and anarchistic ideas (especially those summarized by Karl Marx in The Communist Manifesto), and the preference of the new capitalists became Liberalism. Further instability came from the formation of several nationalist movements (in Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary etc.), seeking national unification and/or liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars. Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon I, returned from exile in England in 1848 to be elected to the French parliament, and then as "Prince President" in a coup d'�tat elected himself Emperor, a move approved later by a large majority of the French electorate. He helped in the unification of Italy by fighting the Austrian Empire and fought the Crimean War with England and the Ottoman Empire against Russia. His empire collapsed after an embarrassing defeat for France at the hands of Prussia in which he was captured. France then became a weak republic which refused to negotiate and was finished by Prussia in a few months. In Versailles, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of Germany, and modern Germany was born. Even though the revolutionaries were often defeated, most European states had become constitutional (rather than absolute) monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy had developed into nation states. The 19th century also saw the British Empire emerge as the world's first global power due in a large part to the Industrial Revolution and victory in the Napoleonic Wars. [edit] Empires Main article: Colonial Empires Further information: History of colonialism, Ottoman Empire, Habsburg Empire, Russian Empire, French colonial empire, British Empire, and Dutch Empire Paris with the World Fair of 1884 The peace would only last until the Ottoman Empire had declined enough to become a target for the others. (See History of the Balkans.) This instigated the Crimean War in 1854 and began a tenser period of minor clashes among the globe-spanning empires of Europe that set the stage for the First World War. It changed a third time with the end of the various wars that turned the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Kingdom of Prussia into the Italian and German nation-states, significantly changing the balance of power in Europe. From 1870, the Bismarckian hegemony on Europe put France in a critical situation. It slowly rebuilt its relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain, to control the growing power of Germany. In this way, two opposing sides formed in Europe, improving their military forces and alliances year-by-year.

[edit] 1914 to 1991 See also: Twentieth century Trenches became one of the most striking symbols of World War I The "short twentieth century", from 1914 to 1991, sees World War I, World War II and the Cold War, including the rise and fall of Nazi Germany and of the Soviet Union. These disastrous events spell the end of the European Colonial empires and initiated widespread decolonization. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 to 1991 leaves the United States as the world's single superpower and triggers the fall of the Iron Curtain, the reunification of Germany and an accelerated process of a European integration that is ongoing. [edit] Apocalypse Main articles: World War I, Russian Revolution (1917), Treaty of Versailles, Great Depression, and World War II After the relative peace of most of the 19th century, the rivalry between European powers exploded in 1914, when World War I started. Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilized from 1914 � 1918.[24] On one side were Germany, AustriaHungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria (the Central Powers/Triple Alliance), while on the other side stood Serbia and the Triple Entente - the loose coalition of France, the United Kingdom and Russia, which were joined by Italy in 1915 and by the United States in 1917. Despite the defeat of Russia in 1917 (the war was one of the major causes of the Russian Revolution, leading to the formation of the communist Soviet Union), the Entente finally prevailed in the autumn of 1918. In the Treaty of Versailles (1919) the winners imposed relatively hard conditions on Germany and recognized the new states (such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) created in central Europe out of the defunct German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, supposedly on the basis of national self-determination. Most of those countries engaged in local wars, the largest of them being the Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921). In the following decades, fear of communism and the Great Depression of 1929-1933 led to the rise of extreme nationalist governments � sometimes loosely grouped under the category of fascism � in Italy (1922), Germany (1933), Spain (after a civil war ending in 1939) and other countries such as Hungary. "Peace, Bread and Land" was the revolutionary message Bolshevik party and Lenin's message to a Russian people, ravaged by war After allying with Mussolini's Italy in the "Pact of Steel" and signing a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union, the German dictator Adolf Hitler started World War II on 1 September 1939 attacking Poland and following a military buildup throughout the late 1930s. After initial successes (mainly the conquest of western Poland, much of Scandinavia, France and the Balkans before 1941) the Axis powers began to over-extend themselves in 1941. Hitler's ideological foes were the Communists in Russia but because of the German failure to defeat the United Kingdom and the Italian failures in North Africa and the Mediterranean the Axis forces were split between garrisoning western Europe and Scandinavia and also attacking Africa. Thus, the attack on the Soviet Union (which together with Germany had partitioned central Europe in 1939-1940) was not pressed with sufficient strength. Despite initial successes, the German army was stopped close to Moscow in December 1941. Over the next year the tide was turned and the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats, for example in the siege of Stalingrad and at Kursk. Meanwhile, Japan (allied to Germany and Italy since September 1940) attacked the British in Southeast Asia and the United States in Hawaii on 7 December 1941; Germany then

completed its over-extension by declaring war on the United States. War raged between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allied Forces (British Empire, Soviet Union, and the United States). Allied Forces won in North Africa, invaded Italy in 1943, and invaded occupied France in 1944. In the spring of 1945 Germany itself was invaded from the east by the Soviet Union and from the west by the other Allies respectively; Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered in early May ending the war in Europe. This period was marked also by industrialized and planned genocide. Germany began the systematic genocide of over 11 million people, including the majority of the Jews of Europe and Gypsies as well as millions of Polish and Soviet Slavs. Soviet system of forced labour, expulsions and great hunger in Ukraine had similar death toll. During and after the war millions of civilians were affected by forced population transfers. [edit] Cold War Main articles: Cold War, NATO, Marshall Plan, and European Economic Community East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961 World War I and especially World War II ended the pre-eminent position of western Europe. The map of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided as it became the principal zone of contention in the Cold War between the two power blocs, the Western countries and the Eastern bloc. The United States and Western Europe (the United Kingdom, France, Italy, The Netherlands, West Germany, etc.) established the NATO alliance as a protection against a possible Soviet invasion. Later, the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hungary, Poland, and Romania) established the Warsaw Pact as a protection against a possible U.S. invasion. Meanwhile, Western Europe slowly began a process of political and economic integration, desiring to unite Europe and prevent another war. This process resulted eventually in the development of organizations such as the European Union and the Council of Europe. The Solidarnosc movement in the 1980s in weakened the Communist government in Poland. The Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiated perestroika and glasnost, which weakened Soviet influence in Eastern Europe. Soviet-supported governments collapsed, and by 1990 the Federal Republic of Germany had absorbed the GDR. In 1991 the Soviet Union itself collapsed, splitting into fifteen states, with Russia taking the Soviet Union's seat on the United Nations Security Council. The most violent breakup happened in Yugoslavia, in the Balkans. Four (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia) out of six Yugoslav republics declared independence and for most of them a violent war ensued, in some parts lasting until 1995. In 2006 Montenegro seceded and became an independent state, followed by Kosovo, formerly an autonomous province of Serbia, in 2008. In the post-Cold War era, NATO and the EU have been gradually admitting most of the former members of the Warsaw Pact. [edit] Recent history Further information: History of the European Union, European integration, and Post-Cold War era The European Flag In 1992, the Treaty on European Union was signed by members of the European Union (EU). This transformed the 'European Project' from being the Economic Community with certain political aspects, into the Union of deeper cooperation. In 1985 the Schengen Agreement created largely open borders without passport controls between those states joining it.[25]

A common currency for most EU member states, the euro, was established electronically in 1999, officially tying all of the currencies of each participating nation to each other. The new currency was put into circulation in 2002 and the old currencies were phased out. Only three countries of the then 15 member states decided not to join the euro (The United Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden). In 2004 the EU undertook a major eastward enlargement, admitting 10 new member states (eight of which were former communist states). Two more joined in 2007, establishing a union of 27 nations. A treaty establishing a constitution for the EU was signed in Rome in 2004, intended to replace all previous treaties with a new single document. However, it never completed ratification after rejection by French and Dutch voters in referenda. In 2007, it was agreed to replace that proposal with a new Reform Treaty, that would amend rather than replace the existing treaties. This treaty was signed on 13 December 2007, and will come in effect in January 2009 if ratified by that date. This will give the European union the first permanent President and foreign minister. The Balkans are the part of Europe most likely to join the EU next, with Croatia notably hoping to join before 2010. [edit] See alsoJohannes Kepler From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Kepler) Jump to: navigation, search "Kepler" redirects here. For other uses, see Kepler (disambiguation). Johannes Kepler A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler by an unknown artist. A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler by an unknown artist. Born December 27, 1571(1571-12-27) Weil der Stadt near Stuttgart, Germany Died November 15, 1630 (aged 58) Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany Residence Baden-W�rttemberg; Styria; Bohemia; Upper Austria Fields Astronomy, astrology, mathematics and natural philosophy Institutions University of Linz Alma mater University of T�bingen Known for Kepler's laws of planetary motion Kepler conjecture Religious stance Lutheran Johannes Kepler (pronounced /'k?pl?/) (December 27, 1571 � November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, and key figure in the 17th century Scientific revolution. He is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican Astrononomy. They also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation. During his career, Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, Austria, an assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe, the court mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II, a mathematics teacher in Linz, Austria, and an adviser to General Wallenstein. He also did fundamental work in the field of optics, invented an improved version of the refracting telescope (the Keplerian Telescope), and helped to legitimize the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei. Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (a branch of

mathematics within the liberal arts) and physics (a branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason.[1] Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics",[2] as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics",[3] and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens",[4] transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.[5] Contents [hide] * 1 Early years * 2 Graz (1594�1600) o 2.1 Mysterium Cosmographicum o 2.2 Marriage to Barbara M�ller o 2.3 Other research * 3 Prague (1600�1612) o 3.1 Work for Tycho Brahe o 3.2 Advisor to Emperor Rudolph II o 3.3 Astronomiae Pars Optica o 3.4 The Supernova of 1604 o 3.5 Astronomia nova o 3.6 Dioptrice, Somnium manuscript and other work o 3.7 Personal and political troubles * 4 Linz and elsewhere (1612�1630) o 4.1 Second marriage o 4.2 Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, calendars and the witch trial of his mother o 4.3 Harmonices Mundi o 4.4 Rudolphine Tables and his last years * 5 Reception of his astronomy * 6 Historical and cultural legacy * 7 Works * 8 See also o 8.1 Named in his honor o 8.2 In popular culture * 9 Notes and references * 10 Sources * 11 External links [edit] Early years The Great Comet of 1577, which Kepler witnessed as a child, attracted the attention of astronomers across Europe Kepler was born on December 27, 1571, at the Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden-W�rttemberg, 30 km west of Stuttgart's center). His grandfather, Sebald Kepler, had been Lord Mayor of that town, but by the time Johannes was born, the Kepler family fortune was on the decline. His father, Heinrich Kepler, earned a precarious living as a mercenary, and he left the family when Johannes was five years old. He was believed to have died in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands. His mother Katharina Guldenmann, an inn-keeper's daughter, was a healer and herbalist who was later tried for witchcraft. Born prematurely, Johannes claimed to have been a weak and sickly child. He was, however, a brilliant child; he often impressed travelers at his grandfather's inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty.[6] He was introduced to astronomy at an early age, and developed a love for it that would span his entire life. At age six, he observed the Great Comet of 1577,

writing that he "was taken by [his] mother to a high place to look at it."[7] At age nine, he observed another astronomical event, the Lunar eclipse of 1580, recording that he remembered being "called outdoors" to see it and that the moon "appeared quite red".[7] However, childhood smallpox left him with weak vision and crippled hands, limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy.[8] In 1589, after moving through grammar school, Latin school, and lower and higher seminary in the W�rttemberg state-run Protestant education system, Kepler began attending the University of T�bingen as a theology student, and studied philosophy under Vitus M�ller[9]. He proved himself to be a superb mathematician and earned a reputation as a skillful astrologer, casting horoscopes for fellow students. Under the instruction of Michael Maestlin, he learned both the Ptolemaic system and the Copernican system of planetary motion. He became a Copernican at that time. In a student disputation, he defended heliocentrism from both a theoretical and theological perspective, maintaining that the Sun was the principal source of motive power in the universe.[10] Despite his desire to become a minister, near the end of his studies Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the Protestant school in Graz, Austria (later the University of Graz). He accepted the position in April 1594, at the age of 23.[11] [edit] Graz (1594�1600) [edit] Mysterium Cosmographicum Kepler's Platonic solid model of the Solar system from Mysterium Cosmographicum (1600) Johannes Kepler's first major astronomical work, Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic Mystery), was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on July 19, 1595, while teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac; he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be uniquely inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known planets�Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids correctly�octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, cube�Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding (within the accuracy limits of available astronomical observations) to the relative sizes of each planet�s path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet�s orb to the length of its orbital period: from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough.[12] Closeup of inner section of the model As he indicated in the title, Kepler thought he had revealed God�s geometrical plan for the universe. Much of Kepler�s enthusiasm for the Copernican system stemmed from his theological convictions about the connection between the physical and the spiritual; the universe itself was an image of God, with the Sun corresponding to the Father, the stellar sphere to the Son, and the intervening space between to the Holy Spirit. His first manuscript of Mysterium contained an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with biblical passages that seemed to support geocentrism.[13] With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin, Kepler received permission from

the T�bingen university senate to publish his manuscript, pending removal of the Bible exegesis and the addition of a simpler, more understandable description of the Copernican system as well as Kepler�s new ideas. Mysterium was published late in 1596, and Kepler received his copies and began sending them to prominent astronomers and patrons early in 1597; it was not widely read, but it established Kepler�s reputation as a highly skilled astronomer. The effusive dedication, to powerful patrons as well as to the men who controlled his position in Graz, also provided a crucial doorway into the patronage system.[14] Though the details would be modified in light of his later work, Kepler never relinquished the Platonist polyhedral-spherist cosmology of Mysterium Cosmographicum. His subsequent main astronomical works were in some sense only further developments of it, concerned with finding more precise inner and outer dimensions for the spheres by calculating the eccentricities of the planetary orbits within it. In 1621 Kepler published an expanded second edition of Mysterium, half as long again as the first, detailing in footnotes the corrections and improvements he had achieved in the 25 years since its first publication.[15] [edit] Marriage to Barbara M�ller Portraits of Kepler and his wife in oval medallions In December 1595, Kepler was introduced to Barbara M�ller, a 23-year-old widow (twice over) with a young daughter, and he began courting her. M�ller, heir to the estates of her late husbands, was also the daughter of a successful mill owner. Her father Jobst initially opposed a marriage despite Kepler's nobility; though he had inherited his grandfather's nobility, Kepler's poverty made him an unacceptable match. Jobst relented after Kepler completed work on Mysterium, but the engagement nearly fell apart while Kepler was away tending to the details of publication. However, church officials � who had helped set up the match � pressured the M�llers to honor their agreement. Barbara and Johannes were married on April 27, 1597.[16] In the first years of their marriage, the Keplers had two children (Heinrich and Susanna), both of whom died in infancy. In 1602, they had a daughter (Susanna); in 1604, a son (Friedrich); and in 1607, another son (Ludwig).[17] [edit] Other research Following the publication of Mysterium and with the blessing of the Graz school inspectors, Kepler began an ambitious program to extend and elaborate his work. He planned four additional books: one on the stationary aspects of the universe (the Sun and the fixed stars); one on the planets and their motions; one on the physical nature of planets and the formation of geographical features (focused especially on Earth); and one on the effects of the heavens on the Earth, to include atmospheric optics, meteorology and astrology.[18] He also sought the opinions of many of the astronomers to whom he had sent Mysterium, among them Reimarus Ursus (Nicolaus Reimers B�r) � the imperial mathematician to Rudolph II and a bitter rival of Tycho Brahe. Ursus did not reply directly, but republished Kepler's flattering letter to pursue his priority dispute over (what is now called) the Tychonic system with Tycho. Despite this black mark, Tycho also began corresponding with Kepler, starting with a harsh but legitimate critique of Kepler's system; among a host of objections, Tycho took issue with the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus. Through their letters, Tycho and Kepler discussed a broad range of astronomical problems, dwelling on lunar phenomena and Copernican theory (particularly its theological viability). But without the significantly more accurate data of Tycho's observatory, Kepler had no way to address many of these issues.[19]

Instead, he turned his attention to chronology and "harmony," the numerological relationships among music, mathematics and the physical world, and their astrological consequences. By assuming the Earth to possess a soul (a property he would later invoke to explain how the sun causes the motion of planets), he established a speculative system connecting astrological aspects and astronomical distances to weather and other earthly phenomena. By 1599, however, he again felt his work limited by the inaccuracy of available data � just as growing religious tension was also threatening his continued employment in Graz. In December of that year, Tycho invited Kepler to visit him in Prague; on January 1, 1600 (before he even received the invitation), Kepler set off in the hopes that Tycho's patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial ones.[20] [edit] Prague (1600�1612) [edit] Work for Tycho Brahe Tycho Brahe On February 4, 1600, Kepler met Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Longomontanus at Ben�tky nad Jizerou (35 km from Prague), the site where Tycho's new observatory was being constructed. Over the next two months he stayed as a guest, analyzing some of Tycho's observations of Mars; Tycho guarded his data closely, but was impressed by Kepler's theoretical ideas and soon allowed him more access. Kepler planned to test his theory from Mysterium Cosmographicum based on the Mars data, but he estimated that the work would take up to two years (since he was not allowed to simply copy the data for his own use). With the help of Johannes Jessenius, Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal employment arrangement with Tycho, but negotiations broke down in an angry argument and Kepler left for Prague on April 6. Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and eventually reached an agreement on salary and living arrangements, and in June, Kepler returned home to Graz to collect his family.[21] Political and religious difficulties in Graz dashed his hopes of returning immediately to Tycho; in hopes of continuing his astronomical studies, Kepler sought an appointment as mathematician to Archduke Ferdinand. To that end, Kepler composed an essay � dedicated to Ferdinand � in which he proposed a force-based theory of lunar motion (In Terra inest virtus, quae Lunam ciet � "There is a force in the earth which causes the moon to move").[22] Though the essay did not earn him a place in Ferdinand's court, it did detail a new method for measuring lunar eclipses, which he applied during the July 10 eclipse in Graz. These observations formed the basis of his explorations of the laws of optics that would culminate in Astronomiae Pars Optica.[23] On August 2, 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were banished from Graz; several months later, Kepler returned, now with the rest of his household, to Prague. Through most of 1601, he was supported directly by Tycho, who assigned him to analyzing planetary observations and writing a tract against Tycho's (now deceased) rival Ursus. In September, Tycho secured him a commission as a collaborator on the new project he had proposed to the emperor: the Rudolphine Tables that should replace the Prussian Tables of Erasmus Reinhold. Two days after Tycho's unexpected death on October 24, 1601, Kepler was appointed his successor as imperial mathematician with the responsibility to complete his unfinished work. He illegally[clarification needed] appropriated Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs, which subsequently led to four year delays each to the publications of two of his works whilst he negotiated copyright permissions for the use of Tycho's data. The next 11 years as imperial mathematician would be the most productive of his life.[24]

[edit] Advisor to Emperor Rudolph II Kepler's primary obligation as imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor. Though Kepler took a dim view of the attempts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or divine specific events, he had been casting detailed horoscopes for friends, family and patrons since his time as a student in T�bingen. In addition to horoscopes for allies and foreign leaders, the emperor sought Kepler's advice in times of political trouble (though Kepler's recommendations were based more on common sense than the stars). Rudolph was actively interested in the work of many of his court scholars (including numerous alchemists) and kept up with Kepler's work in physical astronomy as well.[25] Officially, the only acceptable religious doctrines in Prague were Catholic and Utraquist, but Kepler's position in the imperial court allowed him to practice his Lutheran faith unhindered. The emperor nominally provided an ample income for his family, but the difficulties of the over-extended imperial treasury meant that actually getting hold of enough money to meet financial obligations was a continual struggle. Partly because of financial troubles, his life at home with Barbara was unpleasant, marred with bickering and bouts of sickness. Court life, however, brought Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars (Johannes Matth�us Wackher von Wackhenfels, Jost B�rgi, David Fabricius, Martin Bachazek, and Johannes Brengger, among others) and astronomical work proceeded rapidly.[26] [edit] Astronomiae Pars Optica A plate from Astronomiae Pars Optica, illustrating the structure of eyes As he continued analyzing Tycho's Mars observations � now available to him in their entirety � and began the slow process of tabulating the Rudolphine Tables, Kepler also picked up the investigation of the laws of optics from his lunar essay of 1600. Both lunar and solar eclipses presented unexplained phenomena, such as unexpected shadow sizes, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the reportedly unusual light surrounding a total solar eclipse. Related issues of atmospheric refraction applied to all astronomical observations. Through most of 1603, Kepler paused his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on January 1, 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy). In it, Kepler described the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. He also extended his study of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neuroscientists to be the first to recognize that images are projected inverted and reversed by the eye's lens onto the retina. The solution to this dilemma was not of particular importance to Kepler as he did not see it as pertaining to optics, although he did suggest that the image was later corrected "in the hollows of the brain" due to the "activity of the Soul."[27] Today, Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent).[28] [edit] The Supernova of 1604 Remnant of Kepler's Supernova SN 1604 In October 1604, a bright new evening star (SN 1604) appeared, but Kepler did not believe the rumors until he saw it himself. Kepler began systematically observing the star. Astrologically, the end of 1603 marked the beginning of a fiery trigon, the start of the ca. 800-year cycle of great conjunctions; astrologers associated the two previous such periods with the rise of Charlemagne (ca. 800 years earlier)

and the birth of Christ (ca. 1600 years earlier), and thus expected events of great portent, especially regarding the emperor. It was in this context, as the imperial mathematician and astrologer to the emperor, that Kepler described the new star two years later in his De Stella Nova. In it, Kepler addressed the star's astronomical properties while taking a skeptical approach to the many astrological interpretations then circulating. He noted its fading luminosity, speculated about its origin, and used the lack of observed parallax to argue that it was in the sphere of fixed stars, further undermining the doctrine of the immutability of the heavens (the idea accepted since Aristotle that the celestial spheres were perfect and unchanging). The birth of a new star implied the variability of the heavens. In an appendix, Kepler also discussed the recent chronology work of Laurentius Suslyga; he calculated that, if Suslyga was correct that accepted timelines were four years behind, then the Star of Bethlehem � analogous to the present new star � would have coincided with the first great conjunction of the earlier 800-year cycle.[29] The location of the stella nova, in the foot of Ophiuchus, is marked with an N (8 grid squares down, 4 over from the left). [edit] Astronomia nova The extended line of research that culminated in Astronomia nova (A New Astronomy) � including the first two laws of planetary motion � began with the analysis, under Tycho's direction, of Mars' orbit. Kepler calculated and recalculated various approximations of Mars' orbit using an equant (the mathematical tool that Copernicus had eliminated with his system), eventually creating a model that generally agreed with Tycho's observations to within two arcminutes (the average measurement error). But he was not satisfied with the complex and still slightly inaccurate result; at certain points the model differed from the data by up to eight arcminutes. The wide array of traditional mathematical astronomy methods having failed him, Kepler set about trying to fit an ovoid orbit to the data.[30] Within Kepler's religious view of the cosmos, the Sun (a symbol of God the Father) was the source of motive force in the solar system. As a physical basis, Kepler drew by analogy on William Gilbert's theory of the magnetic soul of the Earth from De Magnete (1600) and on his own work on optics. Kepler supposed that the motive power (or motive species)[31] radiated by the Sun weakens with distance, causing faster or slower motion as planets move closer or farther from it.[32][33] Perhaps this assumption entailed a mathematical relationship that would restore astronomical order. Based on measurements of the aphelion and perihelion of the Earth and Mars, he created a formula in which a planet's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun. Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle, however, required very extensive calculation; to simplify this task, by late 1602 Kepler reformulated the proportion in terms of geometry: planets sweep out equal areas in equal times � the second law of planetary motion.[34] Diagram of the geocentric trajectory of Mars through several periods of retrograde motion. Astronomia nova, Chapter 1, (1609). He then set about calculating the entire orbit of Mars, using the geometrical rate law and assuming an egg-shaped ovoid orbit. After approximately 40 failed attempts, in early 1605 he at last hit upon the idea of an ellipse, which he had previously assumed to be too simple a solution for earlier astronomers to have overlooked. Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data, he immediately concluded that all planets move in ellipses, with the sun at one focus � the first law of planetary motion. Because he employed no calculating assistants, however, he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars. By the end of the year, he completed the manuscript for Astronomia nova, though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's observations, the

property of his heirs.[35] [edit] Dioptrice, Somnium manuscript and other work In the years following the completion of Astronomia Nova, most of Kepler's research was focused on preparations for the Rudolphine Tables and a comprehensive set of ephemerides (specific predictions of planet and star positions) based on the table (though neither would be completed for many years). He also attempted (unsuccessfully) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini. Some of his other work dealt with chronology, especially the dating of events in the life of Jesus, and with astrology, especially criticism of dramatic predictions of catastrophe such as those of Helisaeus Roeslin.[36] Kepler and Roeslin engaged in series of published attacks and counter-attacks, while physician Philip Feselius published a work dismissing astrology altogether (and Roeslin's work in particular). In response to what Kepler saw as the excesses of astrology on the one hand and overzealous rejection of it on the other, Kepler prepared Tertius Interveniens (Third-party Interventions). Nominally this work � presented to the common patron of Roeslin and Feselius � was a neutral mediation between the feuding scholars, but it also set out Kepler's general views on the value of astrology, including some hypothesized mechanisms of interaction between planets and individual souls. While Kepler considered most traditional rules and methods of astrology to be the "evil-smelling dung" in which "an industrious hen" scrapes, there was "also perhaps a good little grain" to be found by the conscientious scientific astrologer.[37] Karlova street in Old Town, Prague � house where Johannes Kepler lived In the first months of 1610, Galileo Galilei � using his powerful new telescope � discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter. Upon publishing his account as Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), Galileo sought the opinion of Kepler, in part to bolster the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with a short published reply, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger). He endorsed Galileo's observations and offered a range of speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's discoveries and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescopic observations of the moons in Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus, providing further support of Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) to Astronomia Nova.[38] After hearing of Galileo's telescopic discoveries, Kepler also started a theoretical and experimental investigation of telescopic optics using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne.[39] The resulting manuscript was completed in September of 1610 and published as Dioptrice in 1611. In it, Kepler set out the theoretical basis of double-convex converging lenses and double-concave diverging lenses � and how they are combined to produce a Galilean telescope � as well as the concepts of real vs. virtual images, upright vs. inverted images, and the effects of focal length on magnification and reduction. He also described an improved telescope � now known as the astronomical or Keplerian telescope � in which two convex lenses can produce higher magnification than Galileo's combination of convex and concave lenses.[40] One of the diagrams from Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula, illustrating the Kepler conjecture Around 1611, Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published (posthumously) as Somnium (The Dream). Part of the purpose of Somnium was to describe what practicing astronomy would be like from the perspective of another planet, to show the feasibility of a non-geocentric system. The manuscript, which

disappeared after changing hands several times, described a fantastic trip to the moon; it was part allegory, part autobiography, and part treatise on interplanetary travel (and is sometimes described as the first work of science fiction). Years later, a distorted version of the story may have instigated the witchcraft trial against his mother, as the mother of the narrator consults a demon to learn the means of space travel. Following her eventual acquittal, Kepler composed 223 footnotes to the story � several times longer than the actual text � which explained the allegorical aspects as well as the considerable scientific content (particularly regarding lunar geography) hidden within the text.[41] As a New Year's gift that year, he also composed for his friend and some-time patron Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels a short pamphlet entitled Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow). In this treatise, he investigated the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and, extending the discussion into a hypothetical atomistic physical basis for the symmetry, posed what later became known as the Kepler conjecture, a statement about the most efficient arrangement for packing spheres.[42] [edit] Personal and political troubles In 1611, the growing political-religious tension in Prague came to a head. Emperor Rudolph � whose health was failing � was forced to abdicate as King of Bohemia by his brother Matthias. Both sides sought Kepler's astrological advice, an opportunity he used to deliver conciliatory political advice (with little reference to the stars, except in general statements to discourage drastic action). However, it was clear that Kepler's future prospects in the court of Matthias were dim.[43] Also in that year, Barbara Kepler contracted Hungarian spotted fever, then began having seizures. As Barbara was recovering, Kepler's three children all fell sick with smallpox; Friedrich, 6, died. Following his son's death, Kepler sent letters to potential patrons in W�rttemberg and Padua. At the University of T�bingen in W�rttemberg, concerns over Kepler's perceived Calvinist heresies in violation of the Augsburg Confession and the Formula of Concord prevented his return. The University of Padua � on the recommendation of the departing Galileo � sought Kepler to fill the mathematics professorship, but Kepler, preferring to keep his family in German territory, instead travelled to Austria to arrange a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz. However, Barbara relapsed into illness and died shortly after Kepler's return.[44] Kepler postponed the move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolph's death in early 1612, though between political upheaval, religious tension, and family tragedy (along with the legal dispute over his wife's estate), Kepler could do no research. Instead, he pieced together a chronology manuscript, Eclogae Chronicae, from correspondence and earlier work. Upon succession as Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias re-affirmed Kepler's position (and salary) as imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz.[45] [edit] Linz and elsewhere (1612�1630) A statue of Kepler in Linz. In Linz, Kepler's primary responsibilities (beyond completing the Rudolphine Tables) were teaching at the district school and providing astrological and astronomical services. In his first years there, he enjoyed financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague � though he was excluded from Eucharist by his Lutheran church over his theological scruples. His first publication in Linz was De vero Anno (1613), an expanded treatise on the year of Christ's birth; he also participated in deliberations on whether to introduce Pope

Gregory's reformed calendar to Protestant German lands; that year he also wrote the influential mathematical treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum, on measuring the volume of containers such as wine barrels (though it would not be published until 1615).[46] [edit] Second marriage On October 30, 1613, Kepler married the 24-year-old Susanna Reuttinger. Following Barbara's death, Kepler had considered 11 different matches. He eventually returned to Reuttinger (the fifth match) who, he wrote, "won me over with love, humble loyalty, economy of household, diligence, and the love she gave the stepchildren."[47] The first three children of this marriage (Margareta Regina, Katharina, and Sebald) died in childhood. Three more survived into adulthood: Cordula (b. 1621); Fridmar (b. 1623); and Hildebert (b. 1625). According to Kepler's biographers, this was a much happier marriage than his first.[48] [edit] Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, calendars and the witch trial of his mother Since completing the Astronomia nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook.[49] In 1615, he completed the first of three volumes of Epitome astronomia Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy); the first volume (books I-III) was printed in 1617, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (books VVII) in 1621. Despite the title, which referred simply to heliocentrism, Kepler's textbook culminated in his own ellipse-based system. Epitome became Kepler's most influential work. It contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes.[50] Though it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter, it did not explain how elliptical orbits could be derived from observational data.[51] As a spin-off from the Rudolphine Tables and the related Ephemerides, Kepler published astrological calendars, which were very popular and helped offset the costs of producing his other work � especially when support from the Imperial treasury was withheld. In his calendars � six between 1617 and 1624 � Kepler forecast planetary positions and weather as well as political events; the latter were often cannily accurate, thanks to his keen grasp of contemporary political and theological tensions. By 1624, however, the escalation of those tensions and the ambiguity of the prophecies meant political trouble for Kepler himself; his final calendar was publicly burned in Graz.[52] Geometrical harmonies in the perfect solids from Harmonices Mundi (1619) The iconic frontispiece to the Rudolphine Tables celebrates the great astronomers of the past: Hipparchus, Ptolemy, Copernicus, and most prominently, Tycho Brahe In 1615, Ursula Reingold, a woman in a financial dispute with Kepler's brother Cristoph, claimed Kepler's mother Katharina had made her sick with an evil brew. The dispute escalated, and in 1617, Katharina was accused of witchcraft; witchcraft trials were relatively common in central Europe at this time. Beginning in August 1620 she was imprisoned for fourteen months. She was released in October 1621, thanks in part to the extensive legal defense drawn up by Kepler. The accusers had no stronger evidence than rumors, along with a distorted, second-hand version of Kepler's Somnium, in which a woman mixes potions and enlists the aid of a demon. However, Katharina was subjected to territio verbalis, a graphic description of the torture awaiting her as a witch, in a final attempt to make her confess. Throughout the trial, Kepler postponed his other work to focus on his "harmonic theory". The result, published in 1619, was Harmonices Mundi ("Harmony of the Worlds").[53]

[edit] Harmonices Mundi Main article: Harmonices Mundi Kepler was convinced "that the geometrical things have provided the Creator with the model for decorating the whole world."[54] In Harmony, he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world � particularly the astronomical and astrological aspects � in terms of music. The central set of "harmonies" was the musica universalis or "music of the spheres," which had been studied by Pythagoras, Ptolemy and many others before Kepler; in fact, soon after publishing Harmonices Mundi, Kepler was embroiled in a priority dispute with Robert Fludd, who had recently published his own harmonic theory.[55] Kepler began by exploring regular polygons and regular solids, including the figures that would come to be known as Kepler's solids. From there, he extended his harmonic analysis to music, meteorology and astrology; harmony resulted from the tones made by the souls of heavenly bodies � and in the case of astrology, the interaction between those tones and human souls. In the final portion of the work (Book V), Kepler dealt with planetary motions, especially relationships between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun. Similar relationships had been used by other astronomers, but Kepler � with Tycho's data and his own astronomical theories � treated them much more precisely and attached new physical significance to them.[56] Among many other harmonies, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He then tried many combinations until he discovered that (approximately) "The square of the periodic times are to each other as the cubes of the mean distances." However, the wider significance for planetary dynamics of this purely kinematical law was not realized until the 1660s. For when conjoined with Christian Huygens' newly discovered law of centrifugal force it enabled Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to demonstrate independently that the presumed gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them.[57] This refuted the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the power of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever it applied between two bodies, such as was assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in his mistaken universal law that gravitational fall is uniformly accelerated, and also by Galileo's student Borrelli in his 1666 celestial mechanics.[58] [edit] Rudolphine Tables and his last years Kepler's horoscope for General Wallenstein In 1623, Kepler at last completed the Rudolphine Tables, which at the time was considered his major work. However, due to the publishing requirements of the emperor and negotiations with Tycho Brahe's heir, it would not be printed until 1627. In the meantime religious tension � the root of the ongoing Thirty Years' War � once again put Kepler and his family in jeopardy. In 1625, agents of the Catholic Counter-Reformation placed most of Kepler's library under seal, and in 1626 the city of Linz was besieged. Kepler moved to Ulm, where he arranged for the printing of the Tables at his own expense.[59] In 1628, following the military successes of the Emperor Ferdinand's armies under General Wallenstein, Kepler became an official adviser to Wallenstein. Though not the general's court astrologer per se, Kepler provided astronomical calculations for Wallenstein's astrologers and occasionally wrote horoscopes himself. In his final years, Kepler spent much of his time traveling, from court in Prague to Linz and Ulm to a temporary home in Sagan, and finally to Regensburg. Soon after arriving in Regensburg, Kepler fell ill. He died on November 15, 1630, and was

buried there; his burial site was lost after the army of Gustavus Adolphus destroyed the churchyard.[60] [edit] Reception of his astronomy Kepler's laws were not immediately accepted. Several major figures such as Galileo and Ren� Descartes completely ignored Kepler's Astronomia nova. Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into his astronomy. Some adopted compromise positions. Ismael Boulliau accepted elliptical orbits but replaced Kepler's area law with uniform motion in respect to the empty focus of the ellipse while Seth Ward used an elliptical orbit with motions defined by an equant.[61][62][63] Several astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, against astronomical observations. Two transits of Venus and Mercury across the face of the sun provided sensitive tests of the theory, under circumstances when these planets could not normally be observed. In the case of the transit of Mercury in 1631, Kepler had been extremely uncertain of the parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for the transit the day before and after the predicted date. Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on the date predicted, a confirmation of Kepler's prediction.[64] This was the first observation of a transit of Mercury. However, his attempt to observe the transit of Venus just one month later, was unsuccessful due to inaccuracies in the Rudolphine Tables. Gassendi did not realize that it was not visible from most of Europe, including Paris.[65] Jeremiah Horrocks, who observed the 1639 Venus transit, had used his own observations to adjust the parameters of the Keplerian model, predicted the transit, and then built apparatus to observe the transit. He remained a firm advocate of the Keplerian model.[66][67][68] Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers throughout Europe, and following Kepler's death it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. Between 1630 and 1650, it was the most widely used astronomy textbook, winning many converts to ellipse-based astronomy.[69] However, few adopted his ideas on the physical basis for celestial motions. In the late 17th century, a number of physical astronomy theories drawing from Kepler's work � notably those of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke � began to incorporate attractive forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motive species postulated by Kepler) and the Cartesian concept of inertia. This culminated in Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's laws of planetary motion from a forcebased theory of universal gravitation.[70] [edit] Historical and cultural legacy Monument to Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler in Prague, Czech Republic. The GDR stamp featuring Johannes Kepler. Beyond his role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has loomed large in the philosophy and historiography of science. Kepler and his laws of motion were central to early histories of astronomy such as Jean Etienne Montucla�s 1758 Histoire des math�matiques and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's 1821 Histoire de l�astronomie moderne. These and other histories written from an Enlightenment perspective treated Kepler's metaphysical and religious arguments with skepticism and disapproval, but later Romantic-era natural philosophers viewed these elements as central to his success. William Whewell, in his influential History of the Inductive Sciences of 1837, found Kepler to be the archetype of the inductive scientific genius; in his Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences of 1840, Whewell held Kepler up as the embodiment of the most advanced forms of scientific method. Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apelt � the first to extensively study Kepler's manuscripts, after their purchase by Catherine the

Great � identified Kepler as a key to the "Revolution of the sciences". Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensibility, physical ideas, and theology as part of a unified system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work.[71] Modern translations of a number of Kepler's books appeared in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, the systematic publication of his collected works began in 1937 (and is nearing completion in the early 21st century), and Max Caspar's seminal Kepler biography was published in 1948.[72] However, Alexandre Koyr�'s work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in historical interpretations of Kepler's cosmology and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s Koyr�, and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science, described the "Scientific Revolution" as the central event in the history of science, and Kepler as a (perhaps the) central figure in the revolution. Koyr� placed Kepler's theorization, rather than his empirical work, at the center of the intellectual transformation from ancient to modern world-views. Since the 1960s, the volume of historical Kepler scholarship has expanded greatly, including studies of his astrology and meteorology, his geometrical methods, the role of his religious views in his work, his literary and rhetorical methods, his interaction with the broader cultural and philosophical currents of his time, and even his role as an historian of science.[73] 10 euro Johannes Kepler silver coin The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has also spawned a wide variety of philosophical and popular treatments. One of the most influential is Arthur Koestler's 1959 The Sleepwalkers, in which Kepler is unambiguously the hero (morally and theologically as well as intellectually) of the revolution.[74] Influential philosophers of science � such as Charles Sanders Peirce, Norwood Russell Hanson, Stephen Toulmin, and Karl Popper � have repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of incommensurability, analogical reasoning, falsification, and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific investigation.[75] A wellreceived, if fanciful, historical novel by John Banville, Kepler (1981), explored many of the themes developed in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science.[76] Somewhat more fanciful is a recent work of nonfiction, Heavenly Intrigue (2004), suggesting that Kepler murdered Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data.[77] Kepler has acquired a popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man before his time; science popularizer Carl Sagan described him as "the first astrophysicist and the last scientific astrologer."[78] In Austria, Johannes Kepler has left behind such a historical legacy that he was one of the motifs of one of the most famous silver collector's coins: the 10-euro Johannes Kepler silver coin, minted in September 10, 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler, who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding areas. Kepler was acquainted with Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally, and he probably influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle (the motif of the obverse of the coin). In front of him on the coin is the model of nested spheres and polyhedra from Mysterium Cosmographicum. In 2009, NASA named the Kepler Mission for Kepler's contributions to the field of astronomy.[79] [edit] Works * Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos) (1596) * Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy) (1604)

* De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus's Foot) (1604) * Astronomia nova (New Astronomy) (1609) * Tertius Interveniens (Third-party Interventions) (1610) * Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger) (1610) * Dioptrice (1611) The lunar crater Kepler. * De nive sexangula (On the Six-Cornered Snowflake) (1611) * De vero Anno, quo aeternus Dei Filius humanam naturam in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit (1613) * Eclogae Chronicae (1615, published with Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo) * Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum (New Stereometry of Wine Barrels) (1615) * Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy) (published in three parts from 1618�1621) * Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds) (1619) * Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos) 2nd Edition (1621) * Tabulae Rudolphinae (Rudolphine Tables) (1627) * Somnium (The Dream) (1634) Saracen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Saracen (disambiguation). For the Guinness Premiership rugby team, see Saracens F.C.. Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first, then later for all who professed the religion of Islam.[1] Contents [hide] * * * * *

1 2 3 4 5

Etymology Roman times Christian literature See also References o 5.1 Footnotes o 5.2 Notations

[edit] Etymology The Fatimid Empire at its greatest extent The term Saracen comes from Greek Sa?a?????, which has often been thought to be derived from the Arabic word ?????? sharqiyyin ("easterners"), though the OED (s.v.) calls etymologies from this "not well founded". The term spread into Western Europe through the Byzantines and Crusaders.[1] After the rise of Islam, and especially at the time of the Crusades, its usage was extended to refer to all Muslims, including non-Arab Muslims, particularly those in Sicily and southern Italy.[2] In Christian writing, the name was made to mean "those empty of Sarah" or "not from Sarah," as Arabs were, in Biblical genealogies, descended from Hagar and also called the Hagarenes (??a?????). According to the Arthurian Lancelot-Grail Cycle, the name derives from Sarras, an island important in the Quest for the Holy Grail.

[edit] Roman times The earliest datable reference to Saracens is found in Ptolemy's Geography (2nd century A.D.), which describes "Sarakene" as a region in the Northern Sinai named after the town Saraka located between Egypt and Palestine.[3] Ptolemy also makes mention of a people called the sarakenoi living in north-western Arabia.[3] Eusebius of Caesarea references Saracens in his Eccelastical history, in which he narrates an account wherein Dionysus the Bishop of Alexandria mentions Saracens in a letter while describing the Roman emperor Decius's persecution: "Many were, in the Arabian mountain, enslaved by the barbarous sarkenoi."[3] The Historia Augusta, written in 400 CE also refers to an attack by Saraceni on Pescennius Niger's army in Aegyptus, 193 CE but provides little information on who they might be.[4] Hippolytus, the book of the laws of countries and Uranius mention three distinct peoples in Arabia during the first half of the third century, the Saraceni, Taeni and Arabes.[3] The Taeni, later identified with the Arab tribe called Tayyi, were located around the Khaybar Oasis all the way up to the eastern Euphrates while the Saracenoi were placed north of them.[3] These Saracens located in the Northern Hejaz appear as people with a certain military ability and opponents of the Roman Empire who are characterized by the Romans as barbaroi.[3] They are described in a Notitia dignitatum dating from the time of Diocletian, during the 3rd century, as comprising distinctive units in the composition of the Roman army distinguishing between Arabs, Iiluturaens and Saracens.[5] The Saracens are described as forming the equites (heavy cavalry) from Phoenicia and Thamud.[5] In a praeteritio, the defeated enemies of Diocletians campaign in the Syrian desert are described as Saracens and other 4th century military reports make no mention of Arabs but refer to groups as far as Mesopotamia, involved in battles on both the Persian as well as Roman sides, as Saracens.[5][6] The Historia Augusta carries an account of a letter to the Roman senate, ascribed to Aurelian, that describes the Palmyrian queen Zenobia as: "I might say such was the fear that this woman inspired in the peoples of the east and also the Egyptians that neither Arabes, nor Saraceni, nor Armenians moved against her."[5] Another early Byzantine source chronicling the Saracens are the 6th century works by Ioannes Malalas.[5] The difference between the two accounts of Saracens is that Malalas saw Palmyrans and all inhabitants of the Syrian desert as Saracens and not Arabs, while the Historia Augusta saw the Saracens as not being subjects of Zenobia and distinct from Palmyrans and Arabs.[5] Writing at the end of the fourth century Ammianus Marcellinus, a historian of Julian the Apostate, notes that the term Saraceni designating "desert-dwellers" of the Syrian desert had replaced Arabes scenitae.[5] After the time of Ammianus the Saracens were known as warriors of the desert.[7] The term Saracen, popular in both Greek and Roman literature, over time came to be associated with Arabs and Assyrians as well, and carried a definitive negative connotation.[6] In the second and third century the Roman-Arab relations had become confrontational resulting in the annexation of Arab cities resulting to their increased nomadization so that by the end of the Roman period the use of the term Saracen in reference to Arabs had become conventional.[8] The Middle Persian correspondent terms for Saracens are tazigan and tayyaye; who were located by Stephanus of Byzantium in the 6th century at the Lakhmid capital city of Al-Hirah.[9] [edit] Christian literature This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be

challenged and removed. (November 2008) Eusebius and Epiphanius Scholasticus in their Christian histories places Saracens east of the Gulf of Aqaba but beyond the Roman province of Arabia and mention them as Ishmaelites through Kedar; thus, they are outside the promise given to Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and also beyond a privileged place in the family of nations or divine dispensation.[10] They were viewed as pagans and polytheists in ancient times and in later Christian times became associated with cruel tyrants from early Christian history such as: Herod the Great, Herod Antipas and Agrippa I. Christian writings viewed them as heretics who had to be brought into the Orthodox fold by Origen. To the Christian Saint Jerome the Arabs, who were also considered in Christian theology as Ishmaelites, are also by definition Saracens; pagan tent-dwelling raiders of the lands on the eastern fringes of the Roman empire. The term saracen carried the connotation of people living on the fringes of settled society, living off raids on towns and villages and became equated with both the "tent-dwelling" Bedouin as well as sedentary Arabs. Church writers of the period commonly describe Saracen raids on monasteries and their killing of monks. The term and the negative image of Saracens was in popular usage in both the Greek east as well as the Latin west through the Middle Ages. With the rise of Islam in the seventh century and its strong association with Arabs, tied the term closely with not just race and culture, but religion as well. The rise of the Arab Empire and the ensuing hostility with the Byzantine Empire saw itself expressed as conflict between Islam and Christianity and the association of the term with Islam was further accentuated both during and after the Crusades. Saracen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Saracen (disambiguation). For the Guinness Premiership rugby team, see Saracens F.C.. Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first, then later for all who professed the religion of Islam.[1] Contents [hide] * * * * *

1 2 3 4 5

Etymology Roman times Christian literature See also References o 5.1 Footnotes o 5.2 Notations

[edit] Etymology The Fatimid Empire at its greatest extent The term Saracen comes from Greek Sa?a?????, which has often been thought to be derived from the Arabic word ?????? sharqiyyin ("easterners"), though the OED (s.v.) calls etymologies from this "not well founded". The term spread into Western Europe through the Byzantines and Crusaders.[1] After the rise of Islam, and especially at the time of the Crusades, its usage was extended to refer to all Muslims, including non-Arab Muslims, particularly those in Sicily and southern Italy.[2] In Christian writing, the name was made to mean "those empty of Sarah" or "not from Sarah," as Arabs were, in Biblical genealogies, descended from Hagar and also called the Hagarenes (??a?????). According to the Arthurian Lancelot-Grail Cycle,

the name derives from Sarras, an island important in the Quest for the Holy Grail. [edit] Roman times The earliest datable reference to Saracens is found in Ptolemy's Geography (2nd century A.D.), which describes "Sarakene" as a region in the Northern Sinai named after the town Saraka located between Egypt and Palestine.[3] Ptolemy also makes mention of a people called the sarakenoi living in north-western Arabia.[3] Eusebius of Caesarea references Saracens in his Eccelastical history, in which he narrates an account wherein Dionysus the Bishop of Alexandria mentions Saracens in a letter while describing the Roman emperor Decius's persecution: "Many were, in the Arabian mountain, enslaved by the barbarous sarkenoi."[3] The Historia Augusta, written in 400 CE also refers to an attack by Saraceni on Pescennius Niger's army in Aegyptus, 193 CE but provides little information on who they might be.[4] Hippolytus, the book of the laws of countries and Uranius mention three distinct peoples in Arabia during the first half of the third century, the Saraceni, Taeni and Arabes.[3] The Taeni, later identified with the Arab tribe called Tayyi, were located around the Khaybar Oasis all the way up to the eastern Euphrates while the Saracenoi were placed north of them.[3] These Saracens located in the Northern Hejaz appear as people with a certain military ability and opponents of the Roman Empire who are characterized by the Romans as barbaroi.[3] They are described in a Notitia dignitatum dating from the time of Diocletian, during the 3rd century, as comprising distinctive units in the composition of the Roman army distinguishing between Arabs, Iiluturaens and Saracens.[5] The Saracens are described as forming the equites (heavy cavalry) from Phoenicia and Thamud.[5] In a praeteritio, the defeated enemies of Diocletians campaign in the Syrian desert are described as Saracens and other 4th century military reports make no mention of Arabs but refer to groups as far as Mesopotamia, involved in battles on both the Persian as well as Roman sides, as Saracens.[5][6] The Historia Augusta carries an account of a letter to the Roman senate, ascribed to Aurelian, that describes the Palmyrian queen Zenobia as: "I might say such was the fear that this woman inspired in the peoples of the east and also the Egyptians that neither Arabes, nor Saraceni, nor Armenians moved against her."[5] Another early Byzantine source chronicling the Saracens are the 6th century works by Ioannes Malalas.[5] The difference between the two accounts of Saracens is that Malalas saw Palmyrans and all inhabitants of the Syrian desert as Saracens and not Arabs, while the Historia Augusta saw the Saracens as not being subjects of Zenobia and distinct from Palmyrans and Arabs.[5] Writing at the end of the fourth century Ammianus Marcellinus, a historian of Julian the Apostate, notes that the term Saraceni designating "desert-dwellers" of the Syrian desert had replaced Arabes scenitae.[5] After the time of Ammianus the Saracens were known as warriors of the desert.[7] The term Saracen, popular in both Greek and Roman literature, over time came to be associated with Arabs and Assyrians as well, and carried a definitive negative connotation.[6] In the second and third century the Roman-Arab relations had become confrontational resulting in the annexation of Arab cities resulting to their increased nomadization so that by the end of the Roman period the use of the term Saracen in reference to Arabs had become conventional.[8] The Middle Persian correspondent terms for Saracens are tazigan and tayyaye; who were located by Stephanus of Byzantium in the 6th century at the Lakhmid capital city of Al-Hirah.[9] [edit] Christian literature

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2008) Eusebius and Epiphanius Scholasticus in their Christian histories places Saracens east of the Gulf of Aqaba but beyond the Roman province of Arabia and mention them as Ishmaelites through Kedar; thus, they are outside the promise given to Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and also beyond a privileged place in the family of nations or divine dispensation.[10] They were viewed as pagans and polytheists in ancient times and in later Christian times became associated with cruel tyrants from early Christian history such as: Herod the Great, Herod Antipas and Agrippa I. Christian writings viewed them as heretics who had to be brought into the Orthodox fold by Origen. To the Christian Saint Jerome the Arabs, who were also considered in Christian theology as Ishmaelites, are also by definition Saracens; pagan tent-dwelling raiders of the lands on the eastern fringes of the Roman empire. The term saracen carried the connotation of people living on the fringes of settled society, living off raids on towns and villages and became equated with both the "tent-dwelling" Bedouin as well as sedentary Arabs. Church writers of the period commonly describe Saracen raids on monasteries and their killing of monks. The term and the negative image of Saracens was in popular usage in both the Greek east as well as the Latin west through the Middle Ages. With the rise of Islam in the seventh century and its strong association with Arabs, tied the term closely with not just race and culture, but religion as well. The rise of the Arab Empire and the ensuing hostility with the Byzantine Empire saw itself expressed as conflict between Islam and Christianity and the association of the term with Islam was further accentuated both during and after the Crusades.Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892�1935 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892-1935 was a poetry anthology edited by W. B. Yeats, and published in 1936 by Oxford University Press. A long and interesting introductory essay starts from the proposition that the poets included should be all the 'good' ones (implicitly the field is Anglo-Irish poetry, though notably a few Indian poets are there) active since Tennyson's death. In fact the poets chosen by Yeats are notable as an idiosyncratic selection to represent modern verse. The Victorians are much represented, while the war poets from World War I are not. The modernist tendency does not predominate, though it is not ignored; Georgian poetry is covered quite thoroughly, while a Dublin wit like Oliver St. John Gogarty is given much space and praised in the introduction as a great poet. Yeats was influenced by his personal feelings. Gogarty was a personal friend; he also included poems by Margot Ruddock, with whom he was having a relationship, and other friends such as Shri Purohit Swami. He notes that Rudyard Kipling and Ezra Pound are under-represented because paying their royalties would have cost too much. People have regretted that he did not say which poems he would have added given a free hand. [edit] Poets in the Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1