C By Rajesh

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION Language The media of communication between the user and the system is known as Language. It is classified into three types. They are. a) Machine language: This language is also known as binary language or first generation language or low level language. It consists of binary digits or bits (0-pulse off,1-pulse on). b) Assembly language: It is also known as middle level language or second generation language. Its process is faster than high level language and easy to understand when compared to machine language. Ex: c, c++ c) High level language: This is the user language. It consists of codes which is very easy to understand as the code is similar to English language. Ex: BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, JAVA, C# Operating system: It is an interface between user and the computer. It is used to perform the required operations in the system. It is classified into two types. They are 1) single user operating system: it supports only one user at a time. These are micro computers Ex: DOS 2) Multi user operating system: it supports more than one user at a time. These are mini, main-frame and super computers. Ex: Windows NT, UNIX, XENIX etc., Booting: The process of loading an operating system into the computer internal memory is known as Booting. It is classified into two types. They are 1) Cold booting: when the power is switched on then the process of loading operating system into the computer memory is known as cold booting 2) warm booting: when there is a problem with the computer then the process of rebooting is known as warm booting. Warm booting is done using warm keys or control keys (alt+del+ctrl) or Reset button in CPU. History of c-language: COBOL :COmmon Business Oriented Language : Business BASIC : Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code : Beginners FORTRAN: FORmula TRANslation : Scientific and Engineering purpose Dbase : Data base -doALGOL: AlGOrithmic Language : Some requirements. CPL : Combined Programming Language : More requirement, difficult. BCPL : Basic Combined Programming Language: More requirement, easy B : New concepts (different from BCPL).

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION C

: BCPL + B + some more features( data types)

Advantages or features of c-language 1) C-language is designed in assembly language because its compilation will be faster and also easy to understand 2) C-language is used for scientific purpose, engineering purpose, business purpose and general purpose. 3) C-language is used to design and application software and system software. Ex: Unix 4) C-language supports the storage classes such as static, external, register and automatic 5) In C-language a large program is divided into number of functions so that the size of the program can be reduced as well as program becomes simple. 6) C-language is very easy to understand and use. 7) C-language supports pre-defined functions, user-defined functions and recursive functions. 8) It is flexible. The same program can be designed in required format with different logics. 9) Data structures can be build in c-language. 10) Memory can be allocated at run-time using Dynamic Memory Locations. 11) The user can create Derived data types and User-defined data type using the Primary data types. 12) The arguments can be passed from the command prompt using command line arguments and can perform required operations. C-language: It is a middle level language and is known as structured programming language or function oriented programming language. It is designed and developed by Dennis Ritchie at AT & T (American Telegraph and Telephone) bell laboratory in USA in the year 1972. It could satisfy all the user requirements. Hardware: The set of physical components of the computer is known as hardware Software : The set of programs (language, package, operating system, files, folders etc) is known as software. Firmware: The set of standard routine tasks is known as Firmware Lineware: The Computer Personnel is known as Lineware Program: The set of instruction is known as program Instruction: The set of commands to perform a particular task is known as instruction. A=5 B=6

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instruction program

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION C=A+B DISPLAY C Source code: The code, which is written by the user is known as source code Object code : The system understandable code is called object code. The source code is converted into ASCII code or EBCDIC code for the system identification based on the operating system. ASCII : American Standard Coded for Information Interchange. It uses 8 bits to represent a character. It belongs to Microsoft user ASCII Ex: A=65, a=97, 0 =48 , BCD: Binary coded decimal. It uses 6 bits to represent a character (IBM=International Business Machine) EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. It uses 8 bits to represent a character. Compiler and interpreter: These are used to convert source code into object code. Compiler converts the entire program at a time where as interpreter converts the program in line wise. 0,1 8 bits 1024 bytes 1024 KB 1024 MB 1024 GB

= 1bit = 1 byte = 1 KB ( Kilo Byte) = 1MB (Mega Byte) = 1GB (Giga Bytes) = 1TB (Tera Byte)

Variable: The value, which changes during the execution of a program, is known as variable. It is used to store the contents in a memory cell. a 65536 a : 65536 : 6 :

6 variable address of cell value in the cell

Rules for writing a variable name

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION 1) Every variable name should be started with an alphabet. 2) The length of the variable should not exceed more than 8 characters. Some compilers may support upto 40 characters. 3) Spaces should not be provided in a variable name. 4) Reserved words should not be used as a variable name. 5) Except underscore, other symbols should not be used as a variable name. 6) A variable can store the value of particular data type only. Ex: s_no, s1, snumber, a Constants: The value, which does not change during the execution of the program is known as constant. Numericals: the numbers should not contain quotations. These values could be used for calculations. Ex: 56, 77.788 Characters: The single character should be enclosed within single quotation. A character may be numbers, special symbols, space, alphabets Ex: ‘7’, ‘A’, ‘u’, ‘$’,’ ‘ Strings: the set of characters is known as a string and should be enclosed within double quotation. Ex: “ravi”, “123”, ”it is c-language” Datatypes it is used to define the type of the data used for a variable so that the contents can be stored in a variable based on the data type. 1) Primary data types: it is also known as fundamental data types or basic data types. These data types are generally of 4 types. a) integer: it is used to accept numeric values, which are used for calculations.It occupies 2 bytes and it is represented with "int". It is again classified into 3 types.They are int, short int, long int. b) Float: it is used to accept numeric values as well as decimal values. it occupies 4 bytes.it is classified into 3 types. Thay are float, double, long double. c) Character: It is used to accept a single character into a variable. It occupies 1 byte. It is represented with "char". The collection of characters is referred as string and it is defined with arrays ex: char s[4]="ravi" d) Void: it occupies 0 bytes and it will not return any value.

Type 4

formatted Length

Range

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

string char unsigned char enum short int int long int unsigned short int unsigned int unsigned long int float double long double

%c %c -%hd %d %ld %hu %u %lu %f %lf %Lf

1 byte 1 byte 2 bytes 1 bytes 2 bytes 4 bytes 2 bytes 2 bytes 4 bytes 4 bytes 8 bytes 10 bytes

-128 to 127 0 to 255 -32,768 to 32,767 -128 to +127 -32,768 to +32,767 -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 0 to 255 0 to 65,535 0 to 4,294,967,295 3.4 * e-38 to 3.4 * e+38 1.7 * e- 308 to 1.7 *e+308 3.4*e-4932 to 1.1*e+4932

2) User-defined data types: By using the all the primary data types, user-defined data types will be created, i.e., using more than one primary data types a new data type is created. ex: struct, class, enum (enumerated data types) struct student { int sno, c, cpp, java; char sname[500; float avg, total; }stud; 3) Derived data types: By using a single primary data type a new data type is created, it is known as Derived data types. ex: arrays, functions, pointers clrscr(): This statement is used to clear the screen at run-time. Rules for writing C Program 1) The header files should be declared at the starting of the program in each line. ex: # include "stdio.h" (input and output streams) #include <stdio.h> If header file is included within quotations then the file will be searched or path of the file can be specified which may be located in any directory but if the header file is included within <> then the file will be searched only in the include directory. 2) Every program should contain "main" statement with return-type void. By default it takes "int" as the return-type. It is the main function where the compiler starts executing the program. 3) The block of statements should be enclosed within '{' and '}' 4) Every statement should be terminated with semicolon (;) 5) The variable should be declared at the starting of the statement. 6) C is a case sensitive so the program should be written in lower case letters except some

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION keywords, class name etc., Shortcuts f2- save the program file alt + f9 : Compile the program ctrl+f9: Run the program alt +f5 : To display the result alt + f : File menu alt + red character in menu bar : to display the options of the corresponding menu. alt + x : Exit for c++ editor (turbo editor) Formatted input and output statement 1)

scanf(): it is used to accept the contents into the variable until it founds enter (return) key or space symbol. Syntax: scanf(“formatted string”,&var1,&var2….); Example: scanf(“%d”,&a); scanf(“%d%d%d”,&a,&b,&c); scanf(“%c”,&ch);

2)

printf(): it is used to display the string or to display the contents in the output screen Syntax: printf(“string /formatted string”,var1,var2..); Example: printf(“it is c-language”); printf(“the value is: %d”,a);

Escape characters \n - new line \t - tab space \a - alert ( bell) \f - form feed \b - backspace \\ - slash symbol \’ - single quote symbol \” - double quotation \r - carriage return ‘\0’ - NULL character Operators c-language is rich in operators because it support many number of operators. If true it returns is 1 otherwise value is 0 for any operator. ex: c=a+b+10 =, +  operator c,a,b,10 operands (variables, constants)

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION 1)

Assignment operator: it is used to assign or store a value into the variable. The operator is = Syntax: variable=expression; Ex: c=6 (c  6) c=(a+b)-(d+e)/f

2)

Arithmetic operator: it is used to perform the arithmetical operations. These operators are also known as basic operators. The operators are +, -, *, \, %(modulus). Ex: c=5+7 (c=12) C=5%2 c=1 (remainder)

3)

Relational operators or Comparison operators: These operators are used to provide relation between the variables. The operators are >,<, >= ,<= , = =

4)

Logical operators: These operators are used to provide more than one condition, as the relational operators can provide only one condition. The operators are && (and) , || (or), ! (not) Condition1 True True False False

(&&) Condition2 True False True False

Result True False False False

Condition1 True True False False

(||) Condition2 True False True False

Result True True True False

(!) Condition1 True False

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Result False True

5)

Bitwise operators: These operators are used to perform the arithmetical operations in terms of bits or binary digits. It is classified into 6 types.

6)

Ternary operators: This opertor is also known as conditional operator. It is used to specify the condition using ? and : operator. These operators are combinely known as Ternary operator. Ex: max=(a>b)?a:b;

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION 7)

Casting Operators: It is used to change the data type of the variable and the content is stored in the other variable. Ex: k=(int)f; (where k is int and f is float) K=(char) ch; (where ch is a character containing integer value)

8)

Comma Operator: It is used to separate the contents or variable. It is indicated with , Ex: int a,b,c;

9)

Unary operators: a) Address operator: it is represented with &. It is used to specify the address of a variable. b) Increment operator: it is indicated with ++. It is used to increase the value of the variable. It is classified into two types. They are Pre increment: it is used to increase the value of the variable of the variable in the present statement. Here the operator is preceded by the variable Post increment: it is used to increase the value of the variable of the variable in the next statement. Here the variable is preceded by the operator. c) Decrement operator: it is indicated with - -. It is used to decrease the value of the variable. It is classified into two types. They are Pre decrement: it is used to decrease the value of the variable of the variable in the present statement. Here the operator is preceded by the variable Post decrement: it is used to decrease the value of the variable of the variable in the next statement. Here the variable is preceded by the operator. d) Pointer operator: it is indicated with * . It is used to specify the value in a pointer variable. Ex: int *p; e) typedef operator : it is used to specify the alternative name for a data type so that this altenative name can be used instead of original data type name Ex: typedef int integer ; Integer a,b,c ; f) sizeof operator : It is used to specify the number of bytes occupied by a variable. Ex: printf(« the number of byte of integer var is :%d »,sizeof(int)) ;

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION 10)

Other operators: in addition to these operators c++ supports many number of operators which are used for the special purpose such as - >, .( ) , [] , ,, { } etc., Program to display information on the output screen #include<stdio.h> void main() { clrscr(); printf("welcome to c world"); } WAP to display your address #include <stdio.h> #include main() { clrscr(); printf("\n Name : GRK"); printf("\n D.No. : 19-168"); printf("\n Street : GPT"); printf("\n City : VSP"); getch(); } Program for demo on “\n” (new line) #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { clrscr(); printf("\nhello"); printf("\nhai"); printf("\nthis is ravi"); getch(); } Program for demo on “\t” (tab space) #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { clrscr(); printf("\nWelcome \t to \t c-language"); } Program to find sum of two numbers #include<stdio.h>

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION #include void main() { int a,b,c; clrscr(); printf("enter two numbers"); scanf("%d%d",&a,&b); c=a+b; printf("sum of two nos:%d",c); getch(); } WAP to accept address and display the address #include <stdio.h> #include main() { char name[20],st[20],city[20],dno[20]; clrscr(); printf(" Enter Name :"); scanf("%s",name); printf(" Enter D.No. :"); scanf("%s",dno); printf(" Enter Street :"); scanf("%s",st); printf(" Enter City :"); scanf("%s",city); printf("\n Name : %s",name); printf("\n Door no:%s",dno); printf("\n street :%s",st); printf("\n city :%s",city); getch(); } Write a program to read a character from keyboard and print its ASCII value. #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { char ch; clrscr(); printf("enter a character"); scanf("%c",&ch); printf("The Equivalent ASCII value for the given characters is :%d",ch); getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

Write a program to read length and breadth or a rectangle and find its area and perimeter. #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int l,b,area,peri; clrscr(); printf("enter length of rectangle:"); scanf("%d",&l); printf("enter breadth of rectangle:"); scanf("%d",&b); area=l*b; peri= printf("The area of the rectangle:%d",area); printf("The perimeter of the rectangle:%d",perm); getch(); } WAP to convert the given number is ASCII character #include <stdio.h> #include void main() { int n; clrscr(); printf("Enter a value:"); scanf("%d",&n); /* char ch; ch=n;*/ printf("\n The ASCII charcter is:%c",n); getch(); } Write a program to read radius of a circle and find area and circumference. #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int r,area,cir; clrscr(); printf("enter radius of the circle:"); scanf("%d",&r); area=(3.14*r*r); cir=(2*3.14*r); printf("The area of the circle:%d",area); printf("The circumference of the circle:%d",cir); getch();

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION } Program to find addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and modulus of two numbers #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int a,b,c,d,e,g; float f; clrscr(); printf("enter two numbers"); scanf("%d%d",&a,&b); c=a+b; d=a-b; e=a*b; f=a/b; g=(float)a%b; printf("\n sum of two numbers:%d",c); printf("\n sub of two numbers:%d",d); printf("\n multiplication of two numbers:%d",e); printf("\n division of two numbers:%d",f); printf("\n modulus of two numbers:%d",g); getch(); } Program to convert centigrade to Fahrenheit # include <stdio.h> # include void main() { int c,f; clrscr(); printf("enter the value of centigrade"); scanf("%d",&c); f=(9*c/5)+32; printf(" the value in Fahrenheit is %d",f); getch(); } program to swap two numbers using intermediate variable #include <stdio.h> #include void main() { int a,b,c;

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION clrscr(); printf(“Enter two number”); scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b); c=a; a=b; b=c; printf(“After swapping the values are :%d %d”,a,b); getch(); } program to swap two numbers without using intermediate variable #include <stdio.h> #include void main() { int a,b; clrscr(); printf(“Enter two number”); scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b); a=a+b; b=a-b; a=a-b; printf(“After swapping the values are :%d %d”,a,b); getch(); } program to find the biggest of 2 numbers using conditional operator #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int a,b,max; clrscr(); printf("enter first value"); scanf("%d",&a); printf("enter second value"); scanf("%d",&b); max=(a>b)?a:b; printf("max value :%d",max); getch(); } program to find the biggest of 3 numbers using conditional operator #include<stdio.h> #include void main()

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION { int a,b,c,x,y; clrscr(); printf("enter three values"); scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c); x=(a>b)?a:b; y=(x>c)?x:c; printf("max value:%d",y); getch(); } WAP to find the smallest of 5 numbers using ternary operator (or) conditional operator #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int a,b,c,d,e,x,y,z,p; clrscr(); printf("Enter five values"); scanf("%d%d%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c,&d,&e); x=(a #include void main() { int cno,pmr,cmr,units; char cname[50]; float netpay; clrscr(); printf("Enter customer number:"); scanf("%d",&cno); printf(" Enter customer name:"); scanf("%s",cname); printf(" Enter Current Month Reading"); scanf("%d",&cmr);

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION printf("Enter previous month reading"); scanf("%d",&pmr); units=cmr-pmr; netpay=5.65*units; printf("\n Total units :%d",units); printf("\n Net Payment:%0.2f",netpay); getch(); } program for the demo on increment operator #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int i=65,j=57,a; clrscr(); a=++i; printf("\n the value after pre increment :%d",a); a=j++; printf ("\n the value after post increment:%d",a); a=j; printf("\n the value after post increment in next statement:%d",a); getch(); } output:

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the value after pre increment : 66 the value after post increment:57 the value after post increment in next statement: 58

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

Control statements It is used to execute the block of statement as per the user requirement. It is classified into four types. They are 1) Conditional statements 2) Un conditional statements 3) Decision making statements 4) Looping statements 1) conditional statements: The if-statement is known as conditional statement as it executes the statements based on the condition in if-statement. a) if-statement: if the given condition in if-statement is true then the statements following if-statement will be executed. Otherwise it will not execute the statements syntax: if (condition) { statement(s); } b) if-else statement: it is similar to the if-statement, the only difference is that if the condition in if-statement is false then the statements following else-statement will be executed. syntax: if (condition) { statement(s); } else { statement(s); } c) Nested-if statement: The main purpose of using this statement is to provide more conditions in the if-statements so that the user can execute the required statements. syntax: if (condition 1) { statement(s); } else if (condition 2) { statement(s); } - - - - - - else {

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION statement(s); }

2) Unconditional statement: Generally it should not be supported because it makes the user confuse about the program because it moves the control to the another location. They should be used only within the control statements otherwise the user may not get perfect requirement. It is classified into three types. They are a) goto statement: It moves the control to the required statement based on label name. Same label name should not be used twice and number of goto statements should not used otherwise the programmer may confuse. Label name can be used before or after the goto statement. Syntax: goto ; - - - ---: b) Continue statement: The block of statements will be executed continuously with out breaking the loop. Syntax: continue; c) break statement: it is used to move the control outside of the control statements. Syntax: break;

3) Decision Making Statement: It is also known as Multi-way Branching Statement. It consists of an expression in switch case and the constant values in case statements. A Decision Making Statement can have number of casestatements based on the bytes occupied by a variable. If the expression in switch statement matches with the constant value in the case statement, then the statement after case statement will be executed. It consists of default statement, which is used to execute the statements if all the constant values in case-statement does not match with the switch expression. To execute the statements only in a single case-statement then break statement should be used so that after executing the statements in the control terminates from the Decision Making Statement. Syntax:

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switch (expression) { case constant-1: statement(s); case constant-2:

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION statement(s); case constant-n: statement(s); default : statement(s); } 4. looping statements: It is used to execute the block of statements continuously as long as the condition is true. It is classified into three types. They are a) for loop b) while loop c) do-while loop a) For loop: The for loop contains initial/final value, condition and increment/decrement value. Basing on them the statements within the for loop will be executed. Expressions can be ignored by using the semicolons. Syntax: for(<expression1>;<expression2>;<expression3> { statement(s); } expression-1: it consists of initial value or final value expression-2: It consists of condition expression-3: It consists of increment/decrement value It also allows Nested for-loop. A for-loop within another for-loop is known as nested for-loop. It includes more expressions. Syntax: for(<exp-1a>,<exp-1b>;<exp-2a>,<exp-2b>;<exp-3a>,<exp-3b>) { statement(s); } b) While loop: It contains only the expression (condition). The loop will be executed as long as the condition is true. Nested while-loop is also allowed. Syntax: while(condition) { statement(s); } c) Do-while loop: After executing the statements for the first time then it will check the condition. It will execute the statements as long as the condition is true. The main purpose of using do-while loop is to execute the block of statements at least once even though the condition is false. Syntax: do {

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION statement(s); } while(condition); Program to check whether the given number is equal or not #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int a,b,c; clrscr(); printf("enter three numbers"); scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c); if(a==b&&b==c) printf("the values are equal"); else printf("the values are not equal"); getch(); } Program to check whether the given number is even or odd #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int n; clrscr(); printf("Enter a value: "); scanf("%d",&n); if (n%2==0) printf("It is even"); else printf("It is odd"); } getch(); } Program to find the biggest of 3 numbers #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int a,b,c; clrscr(); printf("enter three numbers");

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c); if (a>b && a>c) { printf("the biggest number is:%d",a); } else if(b>a && b>c) { printf(" the biggest number is:%d",b); } else { printf(" the biggest number is:%d",c); } getch(); } program to find whether the given number is positive, negative or zero #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int n; clrscr(); printf ("enter one number"); scanf("%d",&n); if (n>0) { printf("the no is positive:%d",n); } else if (n<0) { printf ("the no is negative:%d",n); } else { printf ("the no is equal to zero:%d",n); } getch(); } Program to accept gender and find whether he/she is eligible for voting or not #include<stdio.h> #include void main() {

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION char gender; clrscr(); printf("enter gender"); scanf("%c",&gender); if(gender=='m') printf("the eligible age is 21"); else if(gender=='f') printf("the eligible age is 18"); else printf("check your gender"); getch(); } Program to accept gender and age and find whether he/she is eligible for voting or not #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { char gender; int age; clrscr(); printf("enter gender"); scanf("%c",&gender); printf("Enter Age"); scanf("%d",&age); if(gender=='m' || gender=='M') { if(age>=21) printf("He is Eligible for voting"); else prinf("He is Not eligible for voting"); } else if(gender=='f' || gender=='F') { if(age>=18) printf("She is Eligible for voting"); else prinf("She is Not eligible for voting"); } else { printf("Wrong input"); } getch(); } the above program using switch-case

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION /*

switch(n%2) { case 0: printf("It is even"); case 1: printf("It is odd");

WAP to find Quadratic Roots #include<stdio.h> #include #include <math.h> void main() { int a,b,c,d; float x1,x2; clrscr(); printf("Enter values for a,b,c"); scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c); d=(b*b)-(4*a*c); if (d==0) { printf("\n Roots are real & equal"); x1=x2=-b/(2*a); printf("\n The two roots are:%f\t%f" } else if (d>0) { printf("\n Roots are real & unequal"); x1=(-b+sqrt(d) )/(2*a); x2=(-b-sqrt(d) )/(2*a); printf("\n The two roots are:%f\t%f",x1,x2); } else { printf("\n Roots are imaginary"); x1=-b/(2*a); x2=sqrt(d)/(2*a); printf("\n First root: %f+i(%f)",x1,x2); printf("\n Second root: %f-i(%f)",x1,x2); } getch(); }

,x1,x2);

Program to accept employ number, employ name, basic salary and calculate ta,da, hra, pf, it, net salary, gross salary (if-statement) #include<stdio.h> #include void main()

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION { char ename[10]; int eno; float ta,da,hra,pf,it,nsal,gsal,basic; clrscr(); printf("Enter employ number"); scanf("%d",&eno); printf("Enter Employ Name"); scanf("%s",ename); printf("Enter Basic salary"); scanf("%f",&basic); if (basic<=5000) { ta=(6.8*basic)/100; da=(5.8*basic)/100; hra=(6.9*basic)/100; pf=(12.5*basic)/100; it=(10*basic)/100; } else if (basic>5000 && basic<=10000) { ta=(8.9*basic)/100; da=(12.8*basic)/100; hra=(9.9*basic)/100; pf=(11.5*basic)/100; it=(12*basic)/100; } else if (basic>10000 && basic<=20000) { ta=(12.8*basic)/100; da=(15.8*basic)/100; hra=(16.9*basic)/100; pf=(17.5*basic)/100; it=(15.9*basic)/100; } else if (basic>20000) { ta=(15.8*basic)/100; da=(16.8*basic)/100; hra=(19.8*basic)/100; pf=(19.5*basic)/100; it=(18.99*basic)/100; } gsal=basic+ta+da+hra; nsal=gsal-it-pf; clrscr();

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION printf("\n printf("\n printf("\n printf("\n printf("\n printf("\n printf("\n printf("\n printf("\n printf("\n getch(); }

The employ number:%d",eno); The employ name:%s",ename); The Basic Salary:%0.2f",basic); The Travelling allowance:%0.2f",ta); The Dearness allowance:%0.2f",da); The Provident fund:%0.2f",pf); The Income Tax:%0.2f",it); The House Rent Alowance:%0.2f",hra); The Gross Salary:%0.2f",gsal); The Net Salary:%0.2f",nsal);

write a program to accept 3 sides and check whether it is right angled triangle, obtuse angled triangle, acute angled triangle, scalene triangle, equivaleteral triangle or isosceles triangle #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int a,b,c,max,x,y; clrscr(); printf("Enter values for three sides"): scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c); if (a>b && a>c) { max=a; x=b; y=c; } else if (b>a && b>c) { max=b; x=a; y=c; } else { max=c; x=a; y=b; } if (max<(a+b)) { if ( (max*max)=(x*x)+(y*y) ) printf("\n It is Right angled triangle");

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION else if ( (max*max)>(x*x)+(y*y) ) printf("\n It is Obtuse angled triangle"); else printf("\n It is Acute angled triangle"); if(a==b==c) printf("\n It is Equilateral triangle"); else if(a==b || b==c || c==a) printf("\n It is Isosceles triangle"); else printf("\n It is Scalene triangle"); } else { printf(“It is not a triangle”); } getch(); } Program to display the equivalent day for the given value(1-7) (switch-case) #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int n; clrscr(); printf("Enter a number(1-7)"); scanf("%d",&n); switch(n) { case 1: printf("\n Sunday");break; case 2: printf("\n Monday");break; case 3: printf("\n Tuesday");break; case 4: printf("\n Wednesday");break; case 5: printf("\n Thursday");break; case 6: printf("\n Friday");break; case 7: printf("\n Saturday");break; default: printf("Wrong input"); } getch(); } #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int n;

25

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION clrscr(); printf("Enter a number(1-7)"); scanf("%d",&n); switch(n) { case 1: printf("\n Sunday"); case 2: printf("\n Monday"); case 3: printf("\n Tuesday"); case 4: printf("\n Wednesday"); case 5: printf("\n Thursday"); case 6: printf("\n Friday"); case 7: printf("\n Saturday");break; default: printf("Wrong input"); } getch(); } WAP to check whether the given character is vowel or consonant #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { char ch; clrscr(); printf("Enter a character"); scanf("%c",&ch); switch(ch) { case 'a': case 'A': case 'e': case 'E': case 'i': case 'I': case 'o': case 'O': case 'u': case 'U': printf("It is vowel");break; default: printf("It is consonant");break; } getch(); } Program to display the day for the given date in august 2002 (switch-case) #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int date; clrscr();

26

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION printf("Enter date in August 2002(1-31)"); scanf("%d",&date); if (date>=1 && date<=31) { switch(date%7) { case 1: printf("\n Thursday");break; case 2: printf("\n Friday");break; case 3: printf("\n Saturday");break; case 4: printf("\n Sunday");break; case 5: printf("\n Monday");break; case 6: printf("\n Tuesday");break; case 0: printf("\n Wednesday");break; } } else { printf("Wrong input ! Try again"); } getch(); } WAP to print the natural numbers (goto-statement) #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int n,i=1; clrscr(); printf("Enter the final value"); scanf("%d",&n); printf("The natural numbers are \n"); natural: if(i<=n) { printf("%5d",i); i++; goto natural; } getch(); } WAP to find the factorial of the given number (for-loop) // 5!=120 (1*2*3*4*5) #include <stdio.h> #include void main()

27

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION { long int n,i,f=1; clrscr(); printf("Enter a value"); scanf("%ld",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { f=f*i; } printf("\n The factorial of given no: %ld",f); getch(); } WAP to find the sum and count of even, odd and natural numbers for the given number #include <stdio.h> #include void main() { int n,i,esum,osum,nsum,ecount,ocount,ncount; clrscr(); esum=osum=nsum=ecount=ocount=ncount=0; printf("Enter the final value"); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { if(i%2==0) { ecount=ecount+1; esum=esum+i; } else { ocount=ocount+1; osum=osum+i; } } nsum=esum+osum; ncount=ecount+ocount; printf("\n sum of even nos: %d",esum); printf("\n sum of odd nos: %d",osum); printf("\n sum of natural nos: %d",nsum); printf("\n count of even nos: %d",ecount); printf("\n count of odd nos: %d",ocount); printf("\n count of natural nos: %d",ncount); getch();

28

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION } WAP to find whether the given number is prime or not #include <stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,n,c=0; clrscr(); printf("Enter a number"); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { if(n%i==0) c=c+1; } if(c= =2) printf("it is prime no"); else printf("it is composite no"); getch(); } WAP to the multiplication table of the given number #include <stdio.h> #include void main() { int n,i; clrscr(); printf("Enter a value"); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=1;i<=20;i++) { printf("\n %5d*%5d=%5d",n,i,n*i); } getch(); } WAP to print 20 multiplication tables upto 12 values #include <stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,j; clrscr();

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION for(i=1;i<=20;i++) { for(j=1;j<=12;j++) { printf("\n %5d*%5d=%5d",i,j,i*j); } printf("\n\n\n\n\n Press any key to continue"); getch(); clrscr(); } } program to find simple interest and compound interest #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { float p,r,s,c; int n,i=1; clrscr(); printf("\n Enter the principle amount."); scanf("%f",&p); printf("\n Enter the rate of interest in %."); scanf("%f",&r); printf("\n Enter the time in years."); scanf("%d",&n); s=(p*n*r)/100; printf("\n Rs.%f is the simple interest.",s); while(i<=n) { c=p*(1+(r/100)); p=c; i++; } printf("\nRs.%f is the compound interest.",c); getch(); } WAP to check whether the given number is armstrong or not def: if the given number is equal to the sum of the cubes of individual digits then it is known as armstrong ex: 407,153=13 + 53 + 33 = 1 + 125 + 27 = 153 #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int r,s=0,n,m;

30

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION clrscr(); printf("Enter a number"); scanf("%d",&n); m=n; while(n>0) { r=n%10; n=n/10; s=s+(r*r*r); } if (m==s) printf("The number is Armstrong"); else printf("The number is not a Armstrong"); getch(); } WAP to print the following series 12345 12345 12345 12345 12345 #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,j; clrscr(); for(i=1;i<=5;i++) { for(j=1;j<5;j++) { printf("%5d",i); } printf("\n"); } getch(); } WAP to print the following series 11111 22222 33333 44444 55555

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,j; clrscr(); for(i=1;i<=5;i++) { for(j=1;j<=5;j++) { printf("%5d",i); } printf("\n"); } getch(); } WAP to find the value of the following series for the given value 1!+2!+3!+.............. #include void main() { long int i,j,n,f,sum=0; clrscr(); printf("Enter the final value"); scanf("%ld",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { f=1; for(j=1;j<=i;j++) { f=f*j; } sum=sum+f; } printf("The value for the series is :%`ld",sum); getch(); } WAP to find the value of the following series -12+22 -32 +4 2 –52 ......... #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { long int i,j,n,f,sum=0;

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION clrscr(); printf("Enter the final value"); scanf("%ld",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { if (i%2==0) sum=sum+(i*i) ; else sum=sum-(i*i); } printf("The value for the series is :%ld",sum); getch(); } 1/2 +2/3+3/4+4/5+........... #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { long int i,n; float sum=0; clrscr(); printf("Enter the final value"); scanf("%ld",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { sum=sum+(float) ( i/ (i+1) ); } printf("The value for the series is :%f",sum); getch(); } -1/2 + 3/4 - 5/6 + 7/8 ........... #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { long int i,n; float sum=0; clrscr(); printf("Enter the final value"); scanf("%ld",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i+=2) { if((i+1)%4= =0) sum=sum+(float)( i/ (i+1) );

33

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION else sum=sum-(float) ( i/ (i+1) ); } printf("The value for the series is :%f",sum); getch(); } -1 + 2 - 3 + 4 - 5 + 6 ....... #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { long int i,n,sum=0; clrscr(); printf("Enter the final value"); scanf("%ld",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { if(i%2==0) sum=sum+ i; else sum=sum- i; } printf("The value for the series is :%d",sum); getch(); } WAP to find the value of the following series 1/3-2/4+3/5-4/6............ #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { long int i,n; float sum=0; clrscr(); printf("Enter the final value"); scanf("%ld",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { if(i%2==0) sum=sum-(float)( i/ (i+2) ); else sum=sum+(float) ( i/ (i+2) ); } printf("The value for the series is :%f",sum);

34

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION getch(); } 1+2+4+7+11+………… #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int sum=0,i,n,k=0; clrscr(); printf("Enter a value"); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i=i+k) { k++; printf("%5d",i); sum=sum+i; } printf("\n The value is:%d",sum); getch(); } WAP to print the following series 1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,j; clrscr(); for(i=1;i<=5;i++) { for(j=1;j<=i;j++) { printf("%5d",j); } printf("\n"); } getch(); }

35

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION WAP to print the following series 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,j; clrscr(); for(i=1;i<=5;i++) { for(j=1;j<=i;j++) { printf("%5d",i); } printf("\n"); } getch(); } WAP to print the following series ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi ravi #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,j; clrscr(); for(i=1;i<=5;i++) { for(j=1;j<=i;j++) { printf("ravi \t"); } printf("\n"); } getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

WAP to print the following series ☺ ☺☺ ☺☺☺ ☺☺☺☺ ☺☺☺☺☺ #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,j; clrscr(); for(i=1;i<=5;i++) { for(j=1;j<=i;j++) { printf("%c\t",2); } printf("\n"); } getch(); } WAP to print the following series 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 #include void main() { int i,j,k=1; clrscr(); for(i=1;i<=5;i++) { for(j=1;j<=i;j++) { printf("%d\t",k++); } printf("\n"); } getch(); }

37

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

WAP to print the following series 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30 #include void main() { int i,j,k=1; clrscr(); for(i=1;i<=6;i++) { for(j=1;j<=5;j++) { printf("%d\t",k++); } printf("\n"); } getch(); } WAP to print the following series 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 2 1 #include void main() { int i,j; clrscr(); for(i=5;i>=1;i--) { for(j=1;j<=i;j++) { printf("%d\t",j); } printf("\n"); } getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION WAP to print the following series 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,j,n,p=40; clrscr(); printf("ENTER THE VALUES OF N:"); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) { for (j=1;j<=p;j++) { printf(" "); } for(j=1;j<=i;j++) { printf("%d ",i); } p-=2; printf("\n"); } getch(); } WAP to print the following series ravi rav ra r #include”conio.h” #include"stdio.h" void main() { int i,j,l; char n[15]; clrscr(); printf("\n Enter the string."); scanf("%s",&n); for(i=0;n[i]!='\0';i++); l=i; for(i=l;i>=0;i--)

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION { for(j=i;j>=0;j--) { printf("%c",n[j]); } printf("\n"); } getch(); } WAP to print the following series ivar iva iv i #include"stdio.h" void main() { int i,j,k,l=0; char n[30]; clrscr(); printf("\n Enter the string."); scanf("%s",&n); strrev(n); for(i=0;n[i]!='\0';i++) l=i; for(i=0;i=0;j--) { printf("%c",n[j]); } printf("\n"); } getch(); } WAP to print the following series i vi avi

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION ravi #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,j,l=0; char n[30]; clrscr(); printf("enter a string\n"); scanf("%s",n); strrev(n); for(i=0;n[i]!='\0';i++) { l++; } for(i=l;i>=0;i--) { for(j=0;j
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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION void main() { int i,j; char n[30]; clrscr(); printf("\n Enter the string."); scanf("%s",&n); for (i=0;n[i]!='\0';i++) for(j=0;j<=i;j++) { printf("\n %c %s",n[j],n); } getch(); } searching techniques program for linear search # include # include void main() { int flag = 1,i,a[100],k; clrscr(); printf(“Enter how many elements”); scanf(“%d”,&n); for(i=0;i
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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION # include<stdio.h> # include void main() { int flag=1,k,low=0,high,mid,n, a[200],i; clrscr(); printf(“How many elements you want?”); scanf(“%d”,&n); high=n-1; printf("\nEnter elements in Ascending order:\n "); for(i=0;i a[mid]) /* element in upper half*/ low = mid + 1 ; else if(k == a[mid]) { printf(“\n Search is successful \n)"; printf("\n Element %d Found at Location : ",k,(mid+1)); flag = 0 ; break ; } } if (flag) printf( "\n Search is unsuccessful"); getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION sorting techniques The process of arranging the data either in ascending order or descending order is known as sorting . sorting of data is done using 7 techniques 1) Bubble sort 2) Insertion sort 3) Selection sort 4) Merge sort 5) Quick sort 6) Radix sort 7) Heap sort program for bubble sort # include<stdio.h> # include void main() { int [200]; clrscr(); printf(“How many elements you want?”); scanf(“%d”,&n); high=n-1; printf("\nEnter elements in Ascending order:\n "); for(i=0;i
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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION Unformatted input and output statements 1) input statements a) gets(): it is used to accept a string until it founds return key (ente). the last character is treated as NULL character and is indicated with NULL or '\0' Syntax: gets(variable); Example: gets(s); b) getchar(): it is used to accept a single character into the variable. Syntax: variable =getchar(); Ex: ch=getchar(); c) getch(): it is used to accept a single character into a variable which will not be appeared on the screen. Syntax: getch(variable); Ex: getch(ch); d) getche(): it is also used to accept a single character as similar to getchar(). The main difference is that getche() is a macro where as getch() or getchar() are functions. Syntax: getche(variable); Ex: getche(ch); 2) output statements a) puts(): it is used to display the string in the new line until it found enter key. Syntax: puts(variable); ex: puts(ch); b) putchar(): it is used to display a single character. Syntax: variable=putchar() Ex: ch=putchar(); c) putche(), putch(): it is used to display a single character where putche() is a macro and putch() is a function. Syntax: putche(variable); Syntax: putch(variable); Ex: putch(s);

45

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

operations on strings program to accept a name and find the length #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { char s[50]; int i,l=0; clrscr(); puts("enter a name"); gets(s); for(i=0;s[i]!='\0';i++) { l++; } printf("the length of the string:%d",l); getch(); } WAP to check whether the given string is palendrome or not #include <stdio.h> #include void main() { char s[50],s1[50]; int f=1,i,l=0,j=0; clrscr(); puts("enter a string"); gets(s); for(i=0;s[i]!='\0';i++) l++; for(i=l-1;i>=0;i--) { s1[j++]=s[i]; } s1[j]='\0'; for(i=0;s[i]!='\0';i++) { if (s[i]!=s1[i]) { f=0; } } if (f==0) puts("it is not a palendrome");

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION else puts("it is a palendrome"); getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION Functions string functions the header file is #include "string.h". it is used to accept a string and returns either string or numeric value. 1) strlen(): to find the length of the string EX: strlen("it is c"); 7 2) strrev(): to reverse the given string ex: strrev("ravali"); ilavar 3) strcpy(): it is used to copy the string into a variable ex: strcpy(result,"pass"); 4) strupr(): converts the lower case characters in a string into upper case characters. ex: strupr('Ravi'); RAVI 5) strlwr(): converts the upper case characters in a string into lower case characters. ex: strlwr('Ravi'); ravi 6) strcmp(): compare the given two strings. syntax: strcmp(string1,string2) if string1=string2 then it returns 0 if string1>string2 then it returns positive if string1<string2 then it returns negative ex: strcmp("ravi","srinu") -1 7) stricmp() : ignores case

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION Library Functions wap to accept base and exponent and find its value using library functions #include <stdio.h> #include #include <math.h> void main() { float b,e; clrscr(); printf("Enter base and exponent"); scanf("%f%f",&b,&e); printf("The value is :%f",pow(b,e)); getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION Storage Classes It specifies the scope of the variables while specifying the data type. It is classified into 4 types. They are 1) Automatic varibles. 2) Static variables. 3) Register variables. 4) External variables. 1) Automatic variables: The value of the automatic variable will have effect only in a function. It is the default type of storage class. Its initial value is garbage. The keyword is "auto". ex: int a,b; (or) auto int a,b; 2) External Variables: The value of the external variable will have effect in the entire program. These variables should be declared globally. The keyword is "extern" and its initial value is 0. 3) Static Variables: The value of the static variable will have effect in a function. The keyword is "static" and its initial value is 0. They should be declared in a function. 4) Register variables: The value of the register variable will have effect through out the program. The keyword is "register" and its initial value is garbage value. The main advantage of using register variables is to store the values of the variables in the registers for faster accessibility. WAP for the demo on automatic variable #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { auto int a; /* int a; */ void display(); clrscr(); printf("\n The Initial value of automatic variable is :%d",a); a=5; printf("\n The Specified value of automatic variable is :%d",a); display(); } void display() { int a; printf("\n The value of automatic variable in another function is :%d",a); } output: The Initial value of automatic variable: 998

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION The Specified value of automatic variable: 5 The value of automatic variable in another function: 996 WAP for the demo on register variables #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { void disp(); register int a; clrscr(); printf("\n The Initial value of register variable is :%d",a); a=5; printf("\n The Specified value of register variable is :%d",a); disp(); getch(); } void disp() { register int a; printf("\n The Specified value of register variable is :%d",a); } output: The Initial value of register variable: 998 The Specified value of register variable: 5 The value of register variable in another function: 5 WAP for the demo on extern variables #include<stdio.h> #include int a; void main() { extern int a; void display(); clrscr(); printf("\n The Initial value of external variable is :%d",a); a=5; printf("\n The Specified value of external variable is :%d",a); display(); getch(); } void display() { extern int a; printf("\n The value of external variable in another function is :%d",a);

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION } output: The Initial value of external variable: 0 The Specified value of external variable: 5 The value of external variable in another function: 5 WAP for the demo on static storage class #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { static int a; clrscr(); printf("\n The Initial value of static variable is :%d",a); a=5; printf("\n The Specified value of static variable is :%d",a); display(); getch(); } void display() { static int a; printf("\n The value of static variable in another function is :%d",a); } output: The Initial value of static variable: 0 The Specified value of static variable: 5 The value of static variable in another function: 0

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

POINTERS A pointer is a variable which hold the address of another variable. The pointer variable is indicated with pointer operator (*). Declaration of pointer variable: The pointer variable will be declared using * opeator in the required data type. Syntax: *; Example: int *p, x; Here p is called as pointer variable and x is a variable. Assigning address to pointer variable: After declaring the pointer variable. The address of another variable should be specified to the pointer variable. Syntax: <pointer>=& Example: p=&x; For a pointer variable address operator (&) should not be specified. Storing value into a pointer variable: To store a value into the pointer variable pointer operator followed to pointer variable should be used Syntax: *<pointer>= Example: *p=x; Pointer arithmetic: The arithmetical operators or increment and decrement operators will be used for pointer arithmetic. It is used to change the address of the pointer variable Ex: p++; if the address of pointer p is 65536 then the address after pointer arithmetic is 65538 (if its return type is int) Displaying the address of pointer variable To display the address of the pointer variable, the formatted character %u should be used. Ex: printf("\n Address is :%u",p); Pointer to arrays: A pointer can also point to an arrays, which may be single dimensional array or double dimensional array. Pointer to Single dimensional array: For specifying single dimensional array the pointer will be taken as following Syntax: *(pointer + value) example: int *p; * (p+0)

53

* (p+1)

*(p+2)

*(p+3) *(p+4)

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION 5 65536

6 65538

7 9 8 65540 65542 65544

pointer to double dimensional array For specifying double dimensional array the variable should be declared as double dimensional array and it is taken as following Syntax: *(*(pointer + row)+column) example: int *a[2][3]; *(*(a+0)+1) *(*(a+0)+0)

*(*(a+0)+1)

*(*(a+0)+2)

4

5

6

7

8

9

*(*(a+1)+0)

*(*(a+1)+1)

*(*(a+1)+2)

pointer to functions The address of the variable can be send as an arguments to the functions. In the function these arguments will be used as a pointer. The main purpose of using this concept is to make use of an addresses of a variable in other functions. and can change the values of a variable without using return values. Instead of sending values as an arguments, the programmer will send the addresses as an argument. Pointer to strings The first address of a string will be used by a pointer and using this reference the other cells of a string will be located until it founds NULL character. Pointing to next memory cells will be proceded through pointer arithmetic. pointer to pointer A pointer can also point the other pointer variable by using the reference or address of other pointer variable. ex: int *p,a,**q; This concept can be extended to number of pointer but it makes the programmer confuse. WAP to swap two numbers using pointer to functions #include"stdio.h" #include"conio.h" void main() { int a,b; void swap(int *,int *);

54

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION clrscr(); printf("Enter two values"); scanf("%d%d",&a,&b); printf("\n Before swapping the values are: %d\t%d",a,b); swap(&a,&b); printf("\n After swapping the values are : %d\t%d",a,b); getch(); } void swap(int *p,int *q) { int t; t=*p; *p=*q; *q=t; } WAP to find the length of a string using pointers to functions #include <stdio.h> #include void main() { char s[50]; void length(char *); clrscr(); puts("enter a string"); gets(s); length(&s); getch(); } void length(char *s) { int i,l=0; for(i=0;*s!='\0';i++) { l++;s++; } printf("The length is:%d",l); } WAP to display the address of a pointer variable by passing function as pointer(pointers to functions) #include"stdio.h" #include"conio.h" void main() { int *demo(void);

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION int *r; clrscr(); r=demo(); printf("value of the address%u is %d",r,*r); } int *demo() { int p; p=10; return(&p); } DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATIONS It consists of calloc and malloc which are used to allocate the memory. It is used to save the memory. These are available in the "alloc.h" calloc(): it is used to allocate the number of bytes for a pointer variable syntax: (type)calloc(value,sizeof(datatype)) ex: k=(int *)calloc(5,sizeof(int)) 10 bytes of memory free(): it is used to refresh the memory cells. malloc: it allocates the memory for the variable syntax: malloc(size) ex: malloc(10) Program for the demo on calloc #include<stdio.h> #include #include<string.h> #include void main() { char *str=NULL; str=(char*)calloc(10,sizeof(char)); clrscr(); strcpy(str,"hello"); printf("string is %s\n",str); free(str); } output: the string is hello program for the demo on alloc #include<stdio.h>

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION #include #include main() { void *ptr; ptr=malloc(4); clrscr(); if(ptr==NULL) { printf("memory is not allocated"); } else { printf("memory is allocated"); } } output: Memory is allocated program for the demo on malloc #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include #include<process.h> #include main() { char *str; //allocate memory for string str=(char *)malloc(10); clrscr(); if(str==NULL) { printf("no memory to allocate buffer\n"); exit(1); } strcpy(str,"hello"); printf("string is %s\n",str); free(str); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION STRUCTURES The collection of heterogeneous elements is known as structure. It is used to store the contents of different data type in a single variable. syntax: struct <structure-name> { data type 1: variable(s); data type 2: variable(s); data type n: variable(s); }; ex: struct stud { int sno,age; char sname[50],course[30]; }; the structure can be created either in the main function or outside the main function. The variables in a structure is called as fields. calling a structure in a function: The structure can be called using the reference of structure name and the complete structure will be stored in a structure variable syntax: struct <structure-name> <structure-var>; ex: struct stud s; accessing fields in a function: Using dot operator the fields in a structure can be called using the structure variable. syntax: <structure-var>.field ex: s.sno; passing arguments to structures: The arguments can be passed to the structure variable while calling in the main function. syntax: <structure-var>{argument(s)}; ex: s{10,20,"ravi","adse"}; structure to arrays: The structure variable can be used as an array type by specifing the size ex: struct student s[50]; it can take maximum of 50 student details from 0-49 To access the fields from a structure into the funtion use the following syntax: syntax: var[value].field example: s[0].sno; nested structure: A structure within another structure is known as nested structure. A structure can be created within another structure or a structure can be called within

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION another structure. The fields in the derived structure(inside structure) can be called using the structure variable name of the base structure and derived structure. pointers to structures: The structure variable can be used as a pointer variable by using pointer operator and its field will be accessed using the operator -> or .( ) ex: s->sno; WAP to accept employee details and display them using structures #include <stdio.h> #include struct emp { int eno,basic; char ename[20]; }; void main() { struct emp e; clrscr(); printf("enter employ number"); scanf("%d",&e.eno); printf("Enter employ name"); scanf("%s",e.ename); printf("Enter Basic salary"); scanf("%d",&e.basic); printf("The employ details is \n"); printf("\n employ number :%d",e.eno); printf("\n employ name :%s",e.ename); printf("\n Basic salary :%d",e.basic); getch(); } WAP to find the sum of two numbers using arguments in a structure #include"stdio.h" #include"conio.h" struct add { int a,b,c; }; void main() { struct add x={5,6}; clrscr(); x.c=x.a+x.b;

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION printf("Sum of the elements :%d",x.c); getch(); } WAP to accept number of employee details and search a employ detail(structure to arrays) //using structures to arrays #include <stdio.h> #include struct emp { int eno,basic; char ename[20]; }; void main() { int n,i,k,f=0; struct emp e[20]; clrscr(); printf("How many Employ Details you want to accept :"); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=0;i
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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION getch(); } WAP for the demo to pass structure variable as an argument (structure to functions) #include <stdio.h> #include struct emp { int eno,basic; char ename[20]; }; void main() { struct emp e; void disp(struct emp e); clrscr(); printf("enter employ number"); scanf("%d",&e.eno); printf("Enter employ name"); scanf("%s",e.ename); printf("Enter Basic salary"); scanf("%d",&e.basic); disp(e); getch(); } void disp(struct emp e) { printf("\n\n The employ details is \n"); printf("\n employ number :%d",e.eno); printf("\n employ name :%s",e.ename); printf("\n Basic salary :%d",e.basic); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION WAP for the demo to pass pointer to structure as an argument. #include <stdio.h> #include struct emp { int eno,basic; char ename[20]; }; void main() { struct emp *e; void disp(struct emp *); clrscr(); printf("enter employ number"); scanf("%d",&e->eno); printf("Enter employ name"); scanf("%s",e->ename); printf("Enter Basic salary"); scanf("%d",&e->basic); disp(e); getch(); } void disp(struct emp *e) { printf("\n\n The employ details is \n"); printf("\n employ number :%d",e->eno); printf("\n employ name :%s",e->ename); printf("\n Basic salary :%d",e->basic); } //WAP to create student details using nested structures #include<stdio.h> struct date { int dd,mm,yy; }; struct stud { int sno; char sname[10]; int age; struct date d; }s; void main() { clrscr();

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION printf("Enter student number"); scanf("%d",&s.sno); printf("Enter student name"); scanf("%s",s.sname); printf("Enter student age"); scanf("%d",&s.age); printf("Enter student date of birth(dd/mm/yy)"); scanf("%d%d%d",&s.d.dd,&s.d.mm,&s.d.yy); printf("\n student number:%d",s.sno); printf("\n student name :%s",s.sname); printf("\n student age :%d",s.age); printf("\n Date of birth :%d/%d/%d",s.d.dd,s.d.mm,s.d.yy); getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION FILES It is used to store the output data of a file into a data file using files concept. 1) Sequential files 2) Random files Sequential files it is used to access the records orderly. Declaration: To access(store and retrieve) the contents of different data type the pointer variable should be taken and it is declared using the following syntax syntax: FILE *pointer; example: FILE *fp; Opening a data file: To open a data file in the required mode fopen() should be used syntax: pointer=fopen("datafile","mode"); example: fp=fopen("rk.dat","w"); closing a file: To close the file fclose() statement should be used. syntax: fclose(pointer); example: fclose(fp); mode to open a file r - Read mode, to read the contents from a file w - Write mode, to write the records into a file,It creates a file and store the contents in that file eventhough the file is existed. a - Append mode, it is used to add the records in the existed file. If the file does not exist then it will creates a new file and stores the records in them. r+ - Open an existing file for update (reading and writing) w+ - Create a new file for update (reading and writing). If a file by that name already exists, it will be overwritten. a+ -Open for append; open for update at the end of the file, or create if the file does not exist. file input and output statements fscanf(): it is used to read the data from an existed data file. It is used for read mode. syntax: fscanf(pointer,"formatted string",&var1,&var2....); example: fscanf(fp,"%d%s%d",&sno,name,&fees); fprintf: it is used to store the data into the data file. It is used for write or append mode. syntax: fprintf(pointer,"formatted string",var1,var2....); example: fprintf(fp,"%d%s%d",sno,name,fees); feof(): file-end-of-file. It returns true when there is no contents in a file ex: !feof(fp);

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION EOF: EOF indicated End Of File. The expression will becomes true if end of the file is reached. Random access files fseek(): This function is used to move the file pointer to any specified position in a file. This function itself cannot do any I/O operations, it moves the pointer forward or backward in a file syntax: fseek(fp,n,p); where p is the position in a file, n is the long integer(returns number of bytes), if p is 0- beginning of the file, 1- Current position, 2- end of file ftell(): it returns current position of file pointer as a byte number into a long integer syntax: n=ftell(fp); unformatted Input and output functions input statements 1) fgetc(): it is used read a character from the file. ex: ch=fgetc(fp); 2) fgets(): it is used to read a string from the file. ex: fgets(s,n,fp); where s is a string variable 3) fread(): It is used to read data from the the file and copies it into the structure variable ex: fread(&e, sizeof(e),1,fp); where e is a structure variable output statements 1) fputc(): it is used write a character into the file. ex: fputc(ch,fp); 2) fputs(): it is used to write a string into the file. ex: fputs(s,fp); where s is a string variable 3) fwrite(): It is used to write data into the the file from the structure variable ex: fread(e, sizeof(e),1,fp); where e is a structure variable Detecting errors ferror(): It is a library function which is used to detect whether the contents is read successful or not. It returns zero if the data in a file is successful found. ex: if (ferror(fp) { printf("Data is not read successfully");

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION break; } Program to store student details in a file using write mode(sequential file) #include<stdio.h> #include void main() { int i,roll; char name[10]; int n; FILE *fp; fp=fopen("d.dat","w"); clrscr(); puts("for how many?"); scanf("%d",&n); puts("enter student details"); for(i=0;i
QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION fflush(stdin); printf("Enter smr"); scanf("%d",&smr); fflush(stdin); printf("Enter emr"); scanf("%d",&emr); fflush(stdin); fprintf(fp,"%3d %30s %3d %3d\n",cno,cname,smr,emr); printf("Enter custno"); scanf("%d",&cno); fflush(stdin); } fclose(fp); } program to read the data from a file(sequential file) # include "stdio.h" # include "conio.h" void main() { int cno,smr,emr; char cname[30]; FILE *fp; clrscr(); fp = fopen("xyz.dat","r"); while(! feof(fp)) { fscanf(fp,"%d %s %d %d\n",&cno,cname,&smr,&emr); printf("%d %s %d %d\n",cno,cname,smr,emr); } fclose(fp); getch(); } WAP to accept student number, student name and age and store it in a file using append mode(sequential file). # include "stdio.h" # include "conio.h" void main() { int sno,age; char sname[30],ch; FILE *fp; clrscr(); fp = fopen("ravi.dat","a"); do

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION { printf("Enter Student number :"); scanf("%d",&sno); fflush(stdin); // refresh the memory printf("Enter Student name : " ); gets(sname); printf("Enter age of the student:"); scanf("%d",&age); fprintf(fp,"%d%s%d",sno,sname,age); fflush(stdin); printf("Do u want to continue (y/n):"); scanf("%c",&ch); } while(ch=='y' || ch =='Y'); fclose(fp); getch(); } WAP to read student number, student name and age from a file(sequential file) # include "stdio.h" # include "conio.h" void main() { int sno,age; char sname[30]; FILE *fp; clrscr(); fp = fopen("ravi.dat","r"); while(!feof(fp)) //while file end of file is reached { fscanf(fp,"%d%s%d",&sno,sname,&age); printf("\n Student number : %d",sno); printf("\n Student name : %s",sname); printf("\n Age of the student: %d",age); } fclose(fp); getch(); } program for storing data into a file using random files #include <stdio.h> #include struct stud { int htno,age; char name[30];

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION }; void main() { FILE *fp; struct stud s; char fname[30]; clrscr(); puts("Enter file name"); fflush(stdin); gets(fname); fp=fopen(fname,"w"); while(1) { printf("Enter Roll no (0-exit):"); scanf("%d",&s.htno); if(s.htno==0) break; printf("Enter Student Name:"); fflush(stdin); gets(s.name); printf("Enter Age of the Student:"); scanf("%d",&s.age); fwrite(&s,sizeof(s),1,fp); } fclose(fp); getch(); } program for displaying records from a file #include <stdio.h> #include struct stud { int htno,age; char name[30]; }; void main() { FILE *fp; struct stud s; char fname[30]; clrscr(); puts("Enter file name"); fflush(stdin); gets(fname); fp=fopen(fname,"r"); while(fread(&s,sizeof(s),1,fp)==1)

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION { printf("%d\t%s\t%d\n",s.htno,s.name,s.age); } fclose(fp); getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS Passing arguments to the main function from the command prompt is known as command line argument ex: main(int argc[],char *argv[]) argc = argument count is used to count the number of arguments in the command prompt. argv = argument variables, to refer an argument in the command prompt atoi = ascii to integer c:\>cla 50 60 [0] [1] [2] WAP to print natural numbers for the given number #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include void main(int argc,char *argv[]) { int i; clrscr(); for(i=0;i<=atoi(argv[1]);i++) { printf("%5d",i); } getch(); } program to compare whether the given two strings are equal or not #include<stdio.h> #include #include<stdlib.h> main(int argc[],char *argv[]) { int i; clrscr(); printf("\n %s",argv[1]); printf("\n %s",argv[2]); if(strcmp(argv[1],argv[2]) == 0) printf("\n Both are equal"); else printf("\n not equal"); getch(); } program to display the given arguments with position #include<stdio.h>

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION #include #include<stdlib.h> main(int argc,char *argv[]) { int i; clrscr(); printf("no of arguments are%d",argc-1); for(i=1;i<argc;i++) printf("\narg[%d]=%d",i,atoi(argv[i])); getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION C-GRAPHICS gotoxy(): it is used to move the cursor to the required column and row position gotoxy(x,y); x=columns,y=rows gotoxy(50,10); delay: it is used to specify the speed of the execution of some instructions. Its header file is #include<dos.h> delay(milliseconds); delay(200); program to move the text from left to right #include<stdio.h> #include #include<dos.h> void main() { int i; clrscr(); for(i=0;i<=70;i++) { gotoxy(i,10);printf(" Aptech "); delay(50); } } #include is used to support the graphics keywords in the program cleardevice() : To clear the graphics screen initgraph() : It is used to initialize the graphics syntax: initgraph(&graph_drivers,&graph_mode,"path"); graphics_drivers : to use the adapters such as MGA, CGA, EGA, MCGA, VGA, SVGA, DETECT (get colors) graphics_mode : To set the number of pixels for filling color or graphics text -24*80 graphics-480*640 example: text=24*80

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initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\tc\\bgi"); pixel=480*640

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

sound: It is used to set sound in milliseconds. Its header file is #include<dos.h>. It is necessary to used nosound() so that the sound can be stopped. syntax:

sound(milliseconds);

settextstyle(): it is used to set the text style, fonts and direction syntax: settextstyle(font,direction,size); outtextxy(): it is used to display the string in the specified row and column. syntax: outtextxy(column,row,"string"); (or) outtextxy(x,y,"string"); putpixel: it is fill a specified pixel with color syntax: putpixel(x,y,color); random: it is used to pick a value automatically basing on the specified final value. its header file is #include<stdlib.h> Syntax: random(value); setfillstyle: it is used to fill the pixel with specified style(0-12). Syntax: setfillstyle(style,color) pieslice: it is used to draw a pie Syntax: pieslice(x,y,sangle,eangle,radius) sangle-starting angle eangle-ending angle circle: it is used to draw a circle in the required location with the specified radius. Syntax: circle(x,y,radius); Ex: circle(320,240,10); (320,240) gives the location of center point of circle. rectangle: it is used to draw a rectangle Syntax: rectangle(x,y,x1,y1); Ex: rectangle(20,20,300,300); (x,y) - starting position (x1,y1)-ending position ellipse: it is used to draw ellipse. Syntax: ellipse(x,y,sangle,eangle,xradius,yradius) sangle- starting angle eangle-ending angle

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION kbhit(): key board hit. It is used to run the graphics until any key is pressed in keyboard. program to move the text from left to right with graphics #include<stdio.h> #include #include #include<dos.h> void main() { int gd=DETECT,gm=0,i; clrscr(); initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\tc\\bin"); setbkcolor(RED); //Setting background color setcolor(WHITE); //Setting foreground color for(i=0;i<=70;i++) { gotoxy(i,10);printf(" Aptech "); delay(50); } } Program for the demo on graphics # include "stdio.h" # include "conio.h" # include "graphics.h" void main() { int gd=DETECT,gm=0; initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\tc\\bgi");// path to bgi files cleardevice(); setbkcolor(BLUE); //setting background color of screen setcolor(YELLOW); //setting foreground color printf("\t x = %d",getmaxx());//displaying maximum pixels in x-axis(columns) printf("\t y = %d",getmaxy());//displaying maximum pixels in y-axis(rows) line(320,0,320,480); line(0,240,640,240); circle(320,240,10); arc(320,240,0,360,50); arc(320,240,180,360,100); setfillstyle(6,YELLOW);

//displaying line(x,y,x1,y1) //circle(x,y,radius) //arc(x,y,x1,y1,radius) //text style

pieslice(490,100,90,270,70); rectangle(50,50,150,80); //rectangle(x,y,x1,y1); rectangle(220,140,420,340);

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

setfillstyle(5,GREEN); bar(500,150,550,200); setfillstyle(1,BROWN); bar(500,400,550,450); bar3d(50,100,100,150,15,1); bar3d(100,400,150,450,30,1); getch(); closegraph(); cleardevice(); } Program for name with different styles # include "stdio.h" # include "conio.h" # include "graphics.h" void main() { int gd=DETECT,gm=0,i,r=20; initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\tc\\bgi"); cleardevice(); for(i=0;i<=10;i++) { settextstyle(i,0,5); outtextxy(0,r,"Aptech"); r = r + 30; } getch(); } Program for displaying address with different styles # include "stdio.h" # include "conio.h" # include "graphics.h" void main() { int gd=DETECT,gm=0; initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\tc\\bgi"); cleardevice(); settextstyle(7,0,4); outtextxy(0,50,"GRK"); //0- HORIZ_DIR ,1-VERT_DIR settextstyle(3,0,7);outtextxy(0,75,"19-168"); settextstyle(0,0,6);outtextxy(0,170,"GPT"); settextstyle(1,0,6);outtextxy(0,225,"VSP"); getch();

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION cleardevice(); closegraph(); } Program for sound # include "stdio.h" # include "dos.h" # include "conio.h" void main() { int i,j; clrscr(); printf("\t\t\t pl. wait.."); for(j=0;j<10;j++) for(i=500;i<3000;i= i + 50) { sound(i); delay(5); nosound(); // to stop the current frequency } } Program for displaying home # include "stdio.h" # include "conio.h" # include "graphics.h" void main() { int gd,gm; gm=0; gd=DETECT; initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\tc\\bgi"); cleardevice(); line(200,200,200,300); moveto(200,300); lineto(400,300); lineto(400,200); lineto(200,200); lineto(300,100); lineto(400,200); moveto(220,200); rectangle(220,225,270,300); moveto(300,200); rectangle(320,220,350,250); moveto(330,220);

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION lineto(330,250); moveto(340,220); lineto(340,250); gotoxy(33,11); printf("Happy Home"); getch(); } program to move a ball from left to right # include "stdio.h" # include "conio.h" # include "graphics.h" void main() { int gd,gm,i; int a[100][100]; gd=gm=0; gd=DETECT; initgraph(&gd,&gm,"c:\\tc\\bgi"); cleardevice(); setcolor(YELLOW); setbkcolor(BLUE); setfillstyle(1,YELLOW); pieslice(400,100,0,360,30); getimage(360,60,440,140,a); cleardevice(); putimage(1,300,a,0); for(i=1;i<640;i+=2) { putimage(i,300,a,0); putimage(i+2,300,a,0); } getch(); closegraph(); cleardevice(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

STACKS stack : it is called linear data structure . in which data is inserting and deletion will done from same end called top of the stack. it's style is called last in first out(LIFO)). Program for stack implementation (insert,delete, display) int m[10],top=-1; #define n 5 void insert(); void display(); void delete(); main() { int choice; clrscr(); do { clrscr(); printf("1. Push\n"); printf("2. Pop\n"); printf("3. Display\n"); printf("4.Exit\n"); printf("Enter your choice :"); scanf("%d",&choice); switch(choice) { case 1: insert();getch();break; case 2: delete();getch();break; case 3: display();getch();break; default: printf("Exiting from the program"); } }while(choice!=4); getch(); } void insert() { int x; if(top==n-1) { printf("Stack is full"); } else { printf("Enter element :"); scanf("%d",&x);

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION top++; m[top]=x; } } void display() { int i; if(top==-1) { printf("No values to display"); } else { for(i=0;i<=top;i++) { printf("m[%d] is %4d\n",i,m[i]); } } } void delete() { int x; if(top==-1) { printf("Stack is empty"); } else { x=m[top--]; printf("Deleted element is :%d",x); } } program for stack operation (accepting elements) #include<stdio.h> #include #include<stdlib.h> main() { int top,n,i; char ch; int a[100],ele; clrscr(); top=-1; printf("enter n value");

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION scanf("%d",&n); printf("enter elements into array"); scanf("%d",&a[i]); printf("do u want to push"); scanf("%c",&ch); if(top==n) { puts("stack is full"); exit(1); } else { top++; a[top]=ele; getch(); } } program for stack operation (push,pop-pointer to structures) #include<stdio.h> #define max 5 #include typedef struct { int top; int arr[max]; }s; void main() { int choice,x; s stack; void create(s*); int isempty(s*); int isfull(s*); void push(s*,int); int pop(s*); creat(&stack); do { clrscr(); printf("\n MENU::\n"); puts(" "); printf("1.PUSH\n"); printf("2.POP\n"); printf("3.EXIT\n"); printf("enter your choice");

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION scanf("%d",&choice); switch(choice) { case 1:clrscr(); if(isfull(&stack)) { printf("stack full,press any key to continue"); getch(); } else { printf("enter value"); scanf("%d",&x); push(& stack,x); } break; case 2:clrscr(); if(isempty(&stack)) { printf("stack empty,press any key to continue"); getch(); } else { printf("value popped is %d\n",pop(&stack)); printf("press any key to continue"); getch(); } } } while(choice!=3); } void create(s *v) { v->top=-1; } int isempty(s *v) { if(v->top==-1) return 1; else return 0; } int isfull(s *v) { if(v->top==max-1) return 1;

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION else return 0; } void push(s *v,int value) { v->arr[++v->top]=value; } int pop(s *v) { return(v->arr[v->top--]); } program for stack implementation (students) #include<stdio.h> struct student { int sno; char sname[30]; struct student *next; }; struct student *rec,*top=NULL; main() { char ch; do { clrscr(); printf("Main Menu\n"); printf("1.Add Records\n"); printf("2.List Records\n"); printf("3.Exit\n"); printf("Enter Choice[1-3]:"); ch=getchar();fflush(stdin); if(ch=='1') add(); else if(ch=='2') list(); else if(ch=='3') exit(0); else {printf("\nInvalid Option");getch();} }while(ch!='3'); } add() { clrscr(); rec=(struct student*) malloc(sizeof(struct student)); printf("Enter Sno:");scanf("%d",&rec->sno);fflush(stdin); printf("Enter SName:");gets(rec->sname);

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION if(top==NULL) {top=rec;rec->next=NULL;} else {rec->next=top;top=rec;} } list() { struct student *ptr; clrscr(); ptr=top; while(ptr!=NULL) { printf("%3d %-30s\n",ptr->sno,ptr->sname); ptr=ptr->next; } getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION QUEUES queue : it is called linear data structure . in which value is inserting at from one end is called rear and value is deleted at from another end is called front. in which first inserted element will be deleted first. it is called first in first out FIFO) and deletion will done from same end called top of the stack. it's style is called last in first out(LIFO)). Program for implementation of queue (insert,delete, display) int m[10],front =0,rear=-1; #define n 5 void insert(); void display(); void delete(); main() { int choice; clrscr(); do { clrscr(); printf("1. Push\n"); printf("2. Pop\n"); printf("3. Display\n"); printf("4.Exit\n"); printf("Enter your choice :"); scanf("%d",&choice); switch(choice) { case 1: insert();getch();break; case 2: delete();getch();break; case 3: display();getch();break; default: printf("Exiting from the program"); } }while(choice!=4); getch(); } void insert() { int x; if(top==n-1) { printf("Queue is full"); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION else { printf("Enter element :"); scanf("%d",&x); rear++; m[rear]=x; } } void display() { int i; if(front <=rear) { for(i=front;i<=rear;i++) { printf("m[%d] is %4d\n",i,m[i]); } } else { printf("Queue is empty"); } } void delete() { int x; if(front <=rear) { x=m[front]; front++; printf("Deleted element is :%d",x); } else { printf("Queue is empty"); } } Program for implementation of queue (student) #include<stdio.h> struct student {

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION int sno; char sname[30]; struct student *next; }; struct student *rec,*top=NULL,*ptr; main() { char ch; do { clrscr(); printf("Main Menu\n"); printf("1.Add Records\n"); printf("2.List Records\n"); printf("3.Exit\n"); printf("Enter Choice[1-3]:"); ch=getchar();fflush(stdin); if(ch=='1') add(); else if(ch=='2') list(); else if(ch=='3') exit(0); else {printf("\nInvalid Option");getch();} }while(ch!='3'); } add() { clrscr(); rec=(struct student*) malloc(sizeof(struct student)); printf("Enter Sno:");scanf("%d",&rec->sno);fflush(stdin); printf("Enter SName:");gets(rec->sname); if(top==NULL) {top=rec;rec->next=NULL;ptr=top;} else {ptr->next=rec;rec->next=NULL;ptr=rec;} } list() { struct student *rptr; clrscr(); rptr=top; while(rptr!=NULL) { printf("%3d %-30s\n",rptr->sno,rptr->sname);

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION rptr=rptr->next; } getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION TREES A tree is a finite set of one or more nodes such that (i) there is a specially designed node called root (ii)the remaining nodes are partitioned into n>= 0 disjoint sets T1, T2,T3,.....Tn where each of these sets is a tree. A

C

B

E

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F

L

G

D

H

I

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There are many terms, which are often used when referring to trees. A Node stands for the item of information plus the branches to other items. Consider the above figure. This tree has 13 nodes. The root node is A. Normally we draw root node always at top. The no of sub trees of a node is called a degree. The degree of node A is 3, of C is 1 and of F is zero. The nodes that of have degree zero are called leaf nodes. The above fig K, L, F, G, M, I, J are leaf nodes (we also call them as terminal nodes..). Alternatively the other nodes are non-terminal nodes. The degree of a tree is the maximum degree of its individual trees. Thus the degree of above tree is 3. The level of tree is defined by initially letting the root node one. If a node is at level l then its children are at level l+1.The figure shows the levels of different nodes in a tree. The height and depth of a tree is defined to be the maximum level of its subnodes.

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION A forest is a set of n>= 0 disjoint trees. The notion of a forest is very close to that of a tree because if we remove a root of a tree we get a forest. For example in the above tree if we remove A we get a forest of three trees. The other ways to draw a tree is by list Ex: (A(B(E(K,L),F),C(G),D(H(M),I,J))) Binary TREES A binary tree is an important type of tree structure, which occurs very often it is characterized by the fact that any node can have at most two branches. Definition: A binary tree is a finite set of nodes which is either empty or consists of a root and distinct binary trees called left subtree and right subtree The distinctions between a binary tree and a tree should be analyzed. First of all there is no tree having zero nodes, but there is an empty binary tree The two binary trees drawn below are different . A

A

B

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The first has right subtree empty and the second has left sub tree empty. If we treat the above trees as a tree the there is absolutely no difference between them. LEVEL A

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION Above fig shows two simple binary trees. These two trees are special kids of binary trees. The first is a skewed tree, skewed to the left. The other fig is a complete binary tree. Notice that all terminal nodes are adjacent levels. The terms that we introduce for trees such as: degree, level, height, leaf, parent, child all apply to binary trees in natural way. Before representations for binary tree let us first make some relevant observations regarding such trees. First What is the maximum no of nodes in a binary tree of depth k? i. ii.

The maximum no nodes on lovel m of a binary tree is 2m-1, m>= 1. The maximum no of nodes in a binary tree of depth k is 2k – 1

For any non empty binary tree T if n0 is the no of trminal nodes and n2 the no of nodes of degree 2 then n0 = n2 +1 A C program that illustrates the concept of btree : #include #include <stdio.h> #include <malloc.h> #include struct Node { int info; struct Node* left; struct Node *right; }*root,*p,*q; Node * set_right(Node * p,int n); Node * set_left(Node * p,int k); void inord_trav(Node *p); void preord_trav(Node *p); void postord_trav(Node *p); void main() { clrscr(); char ch; root = (Node *) malloc (sizeof(Node)); cout <<"\n Enter root data here : "; cin >> root->info; root->left = NULL; root->right = NULL;

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// Creating a root node

QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION cout <<"\n Do u wish to add no in tree "; ch = getche(); while(ch != 'n') // inserting a new node in tree { int n; fflush(stdin); cout<< "\n Enter a number here : "; cin >> n; p= root; q = root; while((n!=p->info) && (q!=NULL)) { p=q; if(n info) q = p->left; else q = p->right; } if(n ==p->info) cout << "\n Duplicate ..."; else { if(n info) p = set_left(p,n); else p= set_right(p,n); } cout <<"\n Do u wish to add no in tree "; ch = getche(); } cout <<"\n Inorder Traversal ..: "; inord_trav(root); getch(); cout <<"\n Postorder Traversal ..: "; postord_trav(root); getch(); cout<<"\nPreorder Travesal ...: "; preord_trav(root); getch(); }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION Node *set_left(Node *r , int n1) { Node *temp; if(r->left != NULL) cout << "\n Illegal Operation ...."; else { temp = (Node *) malloc (sizeof(Node)); fflush(stdin); temp->info = n1; temp->left = NULL; temp->right = NULL; r->left = temp; } return r; } Node *set_right(Node *r , int n1) { Node *temp; if(r->right != NULL) cout << "\n Illegal Operation ...."; else { temp = (Node *) malloc (sizeof(Node)); fflush(stdin); temp->info = n1; temp->left = NULL; temp->right = NULL; r->right = temp; } return r; } void inord_trav(Node *p) { if(p!= NULL) { inord_trav(p->left); cout <info<<"\t"; inord_trav(p->right); } }

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION void preord_trav(Node *p) { if(p!= NULL) { cout <info<<"\t"; preord_trav(p->left); preord_trav(p->right); } } void postord_trav(Node *p) { if(p!= NULL) { postord_trav(p->left); postord_trav(p->right); cout <info<<"\t"; } } A C program that illustrates the concept of btree : #include<stdio.h> #include #include<malloc.h> struct node { int no; struct node *left; struct node *right; }; void printtreeinorder(struct node *); void printtreepreorder(struct node *); void printtreepostorder(struct node *); struct node *build(struct node *,int); void main() { struct node *root; char ch; int tno=0; clrscr();

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION root=NULL; printf("\nEnter any number: "); scanf("%d",&tno); fflush(stdin); while(tno != 0) { root = build(root,tno); printf("\nEnter any number (0-stop)"); scanf("%d",&tno); fflush(stdin); } printf("\n\nPrinttree Inorder : "); printtreeinorder(root); printf("\n\nPrinttree Preorder : "); printtreepreorder(root); printf("\n\nPrinttree Postorder: "); printtreepostorder(root); getch(); } struct node *build(struct node *bnode , int tno) { if(bnode == NULL) { bnode =(struct node *) malloc(sizeof(struct node)); bnode->no = tno; bnode->left = bnode->right = NULL; } else if(tno < bnode->no) bnode->left = build(bnode->left,tno); else bnode->right = build(bnode->right,tno); return (bnode); }

void printtreeinorder(struct node *ptr) { if(ptr != NULL) {

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION printtreeinorder(ptr->left); printf("\t%d",ptr->no); printtreeinorder(ptr->right); } } void printtreepreorder(struct node *ptr) { if(ptr != NULL) { printf("\t%d",ptr->no); printtreepreorder(ptr->left); printtreepreorder(ptr->right); } }

void printtreepostorder(struct node *ptr) { if(ptr != NULL) { printtreepostorder(ptr->left); printtreepostorder(ptr->right); printf("\t%d",ptr->no); } } program for binary tree #include<stdio.h> #include #include<malloc.h> struct node { int no; struct node *left; struct node *right; }; void printtree1(struct node *); void printtree2(struct node *); void printtree3(struct node *);

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

struct node *build(struct node *,int); void main() { struct node *root,*build(); char ch; int tno=0; clrscr(); root=NULL; printf("\nEnter any number: "); scanf("%d",&tno); fflush(stdin); while(tno != 0) { root = build(root,tno); printf("\nEnter any number (0-stop)"); scanf("%d",&tno); fflush(stdin); } printtree1(root); printf("\n"); printtree2(root); printf("\n"); printtree3(root); getch(); } struct node *build(struct node *bnode , int tno) { if(bnode == NULL) { bnode =(struct node *) malloc(sizeof(struct node)); bnode->no = tno; bnode->left = bnode->right = NULL; } else if(tno < bnode->no) bnode->left = build(bnode->left,tno); else bnode->right = build(bnode->right,tno); return (bnode); } //inorder

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QUALITY COMPUTER EDUCATION

void printtree1(struct node *ptr) { if(ptr != NULL) { printtree1(ptr->left); printf("%d\t",ptr->no); printtree1(ptr->right); } } //preorder void printtree2(struct node *ptr) { if(ptr != NULL) { printf("%d\t",ptr->no); printtree2(ptr->left); printtree2(ptr->right); } } //postorder void printtree3(struct node *ptr) { if(ptr != NULL) { printtree3(ptr->left); printtree3(ptr->right); printf("%d\t",ptr->no); } }

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