Business Methods

INTRODUCTION

A question that I think has been of continuing concern to teachers young and old throughout the history of education, and particularly of interest to Jamaican educators, is that of how to meet the individualized needs of students in a school operation which is geared to masses of students.

Philosophers such as Confucius, Aristotle, Plato and even Socrates recognized the existence of human variability in the education process. Confucius adapted his teachings to the needs and capabilities of individual students, Socrates emphasized self knowledge as the basic idea, and he wanted people to live meaningful lives within their own capacities. Plato suggested that the philosophers should attempt to educate person only so far as his limitations would permit.

These are some of the persons that had strongly influenced the direction of our modern education.

In Jamaica, schools are predominantly “textbook schools.” Textbooks are influential in determining what was to be taught. The reason, educational advantages were offered to a larger section of the growing population, it is necessary to deal with pupils in “grade level” groups. The basic assumption underlying textbook teaching is that the child classified into homogenous groups and taught the material uniformly by standardized procedures.

In this proposal/presentation, I will illustrate the rationale for individualized instruction for secondary school and how it will greatly influence the learning of students. According to Pestalozi, “Since each child is an individual and possesses capabilities for individual power, the method of teaching must be so individualized and individualizing that each child capabilities will develop.”

INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM PROPOSAL TO THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

Individualized instruction means that the learning program for each curriculum area is organized in such a manner as to allow each child to move at his own pace under the guidance of his teacher. Instruction is non-graded; enabling each child to go as far in each subject as his ability permits. Careful evidences are kept on each child’s progress.

Individualized instruction does not mean that the student works alone at all times. It does not mean that the teacher hand over his or her responsibilities to some sort of machine such as computers or other teaching materials.

Students cannot learn effectively through individualized instruction simply because they are told to proceed at their own pace through the study of traditional materials. Specially prepared materials are essential. Present experience indicates that a series of projects, worksheets or lessons are necessary, commencing at the very beginning of each subject and the proceeding sequentially until all the content of the subject has been completed.

WHY THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION SHOULD PURSUE INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS: Teacher-education institutions such as C.A.S.E are preparing a “new breed” of teachers who are committed to making schools more challenging for students.

The current emphasis on community involvement in schools has led parents to question the value of group teaching and to demand that their children be provided instructional programs that individualized learning for all students. There is a growing feeling and mutual understanding among teachers themselves that they want to individualized instruction, but they do not have the time or the resources to prepare all the materials needed. We have developed experience in producing programs of materials that teach a subject in relation to its basic structure and according to the best ways through which students learn. As an emergent teacher, I know that students must be involved in their learning and not merely “told” and that their interest is a great factor in learning. Also, children learn best when allowed to learn at their own pace.

INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS AND THE TEACHERS IN THE CLASSROOM Some teachers take the point of view or believed that individualized instructions programs will someday take the place of the teacher and eventually make the teacher’s role unnecessary.

Individualized programs, although many are quite thorough in nature, are but a start in what students must learn. They cannot possibly replace the teacher. Instead, they will take the

load off the teacher for teaching much of the basic skills and content, leaving him or her valuable and much-needed time to raise challenging questions, evaluating, working with individuals, planning and listening to students. Teachers not often feel that they can find enough time to devote to these matters and this makes teaching a frustrating matter.

Not only will individualized instructional programs give the teacher a new status and role in the classroom, but they will bring a new excitement into teaching and learning, making it a creative experience for teachers and students. Individual instructions will not increase the teacher’s work load but will free him or her to use more of the time on the often neglected dimensions of teaching. Good teachers will seek good individualized instructional programs and will develop a philosophy that will enable them to use this approach in the classroom, for these programs offer the greatest assurance of raising the quality of both teaching and learning.

ADVANTAGES OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION The experience gained from all these and other programs indicate that individualized instruction has advantages for both the students and the teacher that cannot be found in other kinds of teaching.

FOR THE STUDENTS;

1. It enables the student to proceed at his or her own pace through the study of each subject.

2. It enables him or her to study in greater depth those aspects of the subject which diagnostic or other test indicate he or she needs, and to move with greater speed on those materials with which he or she is familiar with. 3. There is a one to one relationship between the student and the subject he or she is studying. 4. It allows him to understand better the structure of the subject he or she is studying. 5. It permits him to get an immediate response to his or her answers and he or she can get

immediate satisfaction. 6. Instruction is non-graded. Individualized programs allow the student to proceed in the subject as far as his ability will permit.

FOR THE TEACHERS:

1. It helps the teacher to serve not only as a lecturer but also as a guide to the student in his efforts to increase his or her knowledge of a given subject. 2. It brings about a higher degree of satisfaction. 3. It frees the teacher from the teaching many of the routine basic skills of a subject. 4. It enables him or her to meet more accurately the instructional needs of each child. 5. It allows him or her to bring a structured, carefully thought out program to the students.

6. It furnishes him or her with diagnostic and evaluative devices. 7. It allows him to spend more time with the students who need the most help.

DISADVANTAGES OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION The disadvantages of individualized instruction include;

low learner motivation that makes learning difficult the need for a relatively long lead time to develop course materials- individualized instruction needs more planning than mass or group based instruction to be effective it is not going to be suitable if the subject matter changes quickly the administration not being supportive of this type of instruction the teacher’s role needing to change- for example, changing the role of the teacher may be a disadvantage if they are resistant to change.

METHODS OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION Some methods of individualized instruction that can be used include tutoring, independent and self-directed study, mastery learning, personalized system of instruction and computer-assisted instruction.

TUTORING

Tutoring is one of the most personable forms of individualized instruction. Tutoring is associated with corrective instruction or help for students who are having difficulty learning. It is geared to meet the needs or specific difficulties of individual students. According to Gage and Berliner (1992), “although the specific content of tutoring determines the particular process, certain general components are widely recognized. The tutor should diagnose and then remedy, all the while providing encouragement and support” (p. 446). In other words, the goal is to find the student’s difficulty, help the student’s overcome the difficulty, and provide feedback along with lots of reinforcement. The attention given to students is generally unmatched by any other method of instruction.

MASTERY LEARNING ADVANTAGES OF MASTERY LEARNING

1. Better recognition and adaptation to student individual differences and learning style.

2. Improvement in higher order thinking skills provided that criteria are constructed to tap those skills. 3. Increased level of student motivation toward learning content material.

DISADVANTAGES OF MASTERY LEARNING

1. Students may develop a false sense of security because there is no fixed amount of time for learning. 2. It assumes that learning must be equal among students and this assumption is difficult to defend in non-skilled areas. 3. It commits the large portion of instructional resources to slower learners. 4. It holds back faster students unless they are given additional objectives while slower students receive corrective instruction.

PERSONALIZED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION

Introduced in 1964 by Fred Keller, the Personalized System of Instruction, or the Keller Plan, is perhaps one of the first comprehensive systems of individualized instruction. Keller based his system on ten accepted educational principles (McGaw, p. 4):

1. Active responding

2. Positive conditions and consequences

3. Specification of objectives

4. Organization of material

5. Mastery before advancement

6. Evaluation/objectives congruence

7. Frequent evaluation

8. Immediate feedback

9. Self-pacing

10. Personalization

`The mastery feature requires that students in the Personalized System of Instruction method be called on to respond frequently and with responses that have consequence. The course’s contents is broken down into small units of instruction and, unless a student demonstrates mastery of a unit, he or she may not be allowed to move on to the nest unit. It suggests that if activities are to produce positive consequences for the learner, repeated testing must take place, with errors resulting in a program of remediation rather than in penalties. The learners must be allowed to learn at their own rate; learning should occur in small, sequential segments and several trials should be allowed in order for students to obtain success.

In the traditional approach generally adheres to the notion of either success or failure, thereby allowing students only one opportunity to succeed. For example, in most traditional communication courses, students are given one opportunity to presents an informative speech and be evaluated at that time. If students succeed, that is great, but if they fail, that is too bad- the course must go on with or without them.

ADVANTAGE OF PERSONALIZED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION

The main advantage of the Personalized System of Instruction method is that allows learning to occur in an atmosphere that emphasizes positive outcomes. The emphasis is on making students feel good about what they have learned. Students are allowed to makes mistakes and correct them, with multiple opportunities for improvement.

DISADVANTAGE OF PERSONALIZED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION

Developing this method is extremely time consuming that often would take years. Also, there is a tremendous time of commitment required of the teacher in maintaining this format (teacher must keep updating the course to make it better).

This method also reduces the number and type of student activities that can be effectively dealt with in performance courses. For example, in many traditionally taught communication

classes, students are involved in roleplaying and other similar activities. In keeping this format of instruction, these activities must be limited because of the testing that must take place.

Computers can be used as a

way to further improve the design and delivery of

individualized instruction–now in an electronic environment. With the advent of the computer is the potential to deliver individualized instruction in a more powerful way.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

1. It saves time that may be spent on drills and is very effective for teaching basic skills and concepts. 2. Using the method will promote a higher self-efficacy and motivation on the part of the students.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

This method of instruction can be a powerful learning tool, but it may not be well suited for all learning styles. Mostly students that were able to quietly concentrate, memorize facts, pay attention to details and stay on a single task until completion benefit from this method.

SELECTING A METHODS FOR INDIVIDUALIZING INSTRUCTION Selecting the most appropriate method of instruction can be done by considering each of the following factors:

number of learners type of content being delivered time you have to develop the course number of times you deliver the learning materials number of staff involved in delivery attitude of the staff number and type of support staff that you have available type of educational environment you are teaching in physical design of your learning environment funds available to develop the materials administrative environment

APPROACHES IN TEACHING As a teacher in a:

TRADITIONAL CLASSROOM

INDIVIDUALIZED CLASSROOM

Covering the curriculum is my first priority I base my teaching on student’s learning and directs my teaching

needs as well as on the curriculum

Learning goals remain the same for all Learning goals are adjusted for students students

based on their needs

I emphasize mastery of content and skill

I emphasized critical and creative thinking and the application of learning

Students

use

the

same

informational I match students to a specific informational

resources (books)

resources based on their learning needs and abilities.

Primarily, I use whole-class instruction.

I use several instructional formats (for example,

small

groups,

whole

class,

individuals and partners) Group students heterogeneously

As appropriate, I group students for instruction based on their learning needs.

All

the

students

move

through

the The pace of instruction may vary, based on

curriculum together and at the same time.

student’s learning needs.

All students complete the same activities

As

appropriate,

I

give

students

opportunities to choose activities based on their interest Use similar instructional strategies day to I use a variety of instructional strategies day

(for

example,

role

plays,

simulation,

readings, lectures and manipulative. All students complete all activities.

Students complete different activities based on their needs or learning preferences.

All students are involved in all instructional I use methods for testing out of work and activities

for compacting (speeding up, eliminating,

replacing) work as appropriate. My

enrichment

work

provides

more My enrichment work demands critical

contents or more application of skills

and/or creative thinking and the production of new ideas, thought and perspectives.

In re-teaching, I provide more practice In using a similar instructional method.

re-teaching,

I

use

a

different

instructional method from the one I used to teach the material the first time.

My re-teaching activities typically involve My re-teaching activities demand higherlower-level

thinking-knowledge

and level thinking while reinforcing basic skills

comprehension- to reinforce basic skills and content. and content. I assume that students have limited or no Before beginning a unit, I use preknowledge of the curriculum content.

assessment strategies to determine what students already know.

I usually assess students’ learning at the I end of an instructional sequence.

use

students’

ongoing

assessment

learning

instructional sequence. I typically use the same assessment tool, product, or project for all students.

REFERENCES:

to

throughout

check an

Gage, N.L; Berliner D. (1992). Educational Psychology, 6th Edition. Boston, Houghton & Miflin.

Jenkins, J.M & Keefe (2005), J.W. Personalized instruction; Changing Classroom Practice. Eye on Education Inc.; New York.

MCGAW, DICKINSON. (1975). "Personalized Systems of Instruction." Paper prepared for the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco.