Bridging the output gap: How the nature of risks shift in a zero interest rate regime By: Procyon Mukherjee 13th November, 2009 The intertwining of a myriad of linkages starting with macro‐economic imbalances to high savings rate in the world’s developing economies, specially China, impacting prime lending rates which also stems from the large scale flow of funds into U.S. Treasury and then the impending rush of a plethora of products to meet the challenges of such a regime has been seen by the world. The roller coaster ride of these products to make the engine of economic activity to move in a direction that is true North, saw some issues when these products failed to stymie systemic risks, in the likes of housing market products or derivatives of them as well; the more alluding example was the failure of certain investment banks to understand the implications of excessive leveraging. The world has seen sense in a collapse than in a continuum of an illusory boom, where all participants in the market could simultaneously prosper, while the underlying prospects remained a puzzle for long. It is in this underlying, core process of economic reconstruction that the focus then shifted and in the very core economic activities that lead to wealth creation. But it could not until the banks could be bailed out and they could be put back into their original groove. This process meant deleveraging and recapitalization and it could not be done without tax‐payer money being channelized to these means. The Fed and the European Central bank had slightly different approach (and so are governments like U.S. and Germany, so different in approach as shown by Krugman in today’s New York times), but disregarding the slightly different anointment of these maneuvers, the fact of the matter was that money that could be otherwise used for a direct investment in assets of higher economic return for the struggling economies, it was alternatively used to cover up past losses some of which weren’t even visible in the balance sheet of some banks. What could have been their alternate use is better explained by the famous helicopter example, or may be the more mundane Chinese example where governments stepped in to buy ‘outputs’ when the output gap widened, the most burning example being in the field of Aluminum. There are other examples, the more soft ones, like providing incentives to purchase of cars to save the car industry, or providing more unemployment assistance, where the need arose. The fiscal gap kept on widening for governments and the governments therefore resorted to a more moderate stance of keeping the lending rate near zero, to take on the more indirect approach of making the banks take up the responsibility of lending less modestly to make the output gap contract. The output gap, which is the fundamental problem of the U.S. economy and most leading economies of the EU, (Output gap is defined as the gap between the potential GDP and the actual GDP, or by the gap between the under‐utilized capacity at full employment), could better be understood taking a more mundane example in the context of a firm. If the underlying demand of its products shrinks, the firm has looming output gap problem, which is fundamentally a problem of increasing operating leverage. The firm responds to this by cutting back on production capacity by taking out these capacities and its costs as well. If the costs match the firm is able to balance its output to the current demand. If all the firms do
the same, there is a looming problem in the economy as the reduced output clearly affects income of people who get eventually displaced. Okun’s Law very simply brings this connection between unemployment and output through his famous equation: Output Gap is equal to beta times cyclical unemployment percentage, where beta is derived from the regression between natural output and natural unemployment. Firms also face the same brunt of output gap as an economy does, but some who are free‐riders, who wait for the demand to return, could be less lucky in the interim period. The more bold ones who take out existing assets and restructure to place these assets in better orientation to the demand for the future, get the double benefit when the demand returns, as they have better cost advantages and productivity as well, to back them. Let us see whether an economy could do this. It would mean that a large pool of people engaged in production of certain outputs are cut back and are re‐employed in a more productive orientation, where demand could be spurred through certain starting incentives. I think some European economies have done it and succeeded to stymie the slide of output. The bulk of the American economy however did not, thus the banks flushed with funds at very low lending rates did not have options to invest in output enhancing assets in the same economy. They did some quick re‐jigging of their portfolio, moved to economies that had higher chances of output gaps being reduced, but there was already quite a crowd out there. With current output growth projected at very low levels and unemployment rate at high levels, this created a certain uneasiness which lasted for a couple of quarters. The solution to this conundrum was provided by commodities, which was again an example of changing risk portfolio of the banks. It started with oil, then it moved to Aluminum and Gold remained the altogether safest haven, ever. The crowding of the oil tankers around Singapore did catch attention of people, large tankers being berthed for good for long. The hardening of the tanker rates followed; as a follow through one also noticed the hardening of the general freight rates in non‐oil sector as well. The very fact that in a severe downturn the shipping industry did not go through a complete collapse this time was a surprise. The Oil contango clearly showed the opportunity, at $5 per barrel on a $50 per barrel, it was a high potential for selling forward in cash and carry trades. The suffering shipping industry from production cuts saw some glimmer of hope and offered to support this through lucrative offers for these trades in terms of oil carrying costs, as large warehousing in oil as an alternate solution did not exist. The economics was simple, if there was a contango that was large enough to support the gap of carrying costs in a relatively low interest rate regime, there was a way to reduce the output gap of oil. The Aluminum industry saw the opportunity early enough, which was a mix of factors related with the most commoditized player in the industry, United Rusal. The consortium of banks lending to Rusal were also steeped in this puzzle of getting Rusal out of the muddle as their fortunes were linked. So when LME of Alumium touched $1500/T‐$1600/T, and virtually it meant taking out capacities and idling them, the banks stepped in to fill up the output gap puzzle with the following solution.
If the contango in Aluminum was above $35 per ton cash to three months, there was sense in locking metal in financing deals as the cost of warehousing also crashed and there were more people available to offer warehouses in a dropping market, and when the rates touched $1/ton/month in the private warehouses, it made perfect sense to make money in these deals. The banks used Aluminum as collateral and Rusal sold forward almost their entire production and got cash in return as Glencore the buyer was also an investor in Rusal. When the quantities touched almost a million tones, the contango still remained and the act lasted more than originally thought it would. When one looks at the implication of this on a grand scale in the market of Aluminum it means that currently there is 7.5 Million tonnes of Aluminum locked in various warehouses in these kinds of financing deals. It is relatively risk free as long as the contango lasts as the banks have the stocks as collateral. It is like saying that ‘financing’ is a consumer of last resort holding 20% of the pie of the world’s aluminum production. But like all paradoxes, there is an underlying paradox that one cannot lose sight of. If this form of output gap solution was possible, in a number of commodities that have matured trading markets, then one could have avoided all recessions and this would have provided perfect opportunity for more stability in prices, which then would bring the contango down, thus endangering the very basis on which the whole premise of doing business lie. There is a premium component that we cannot lose sight of. The premium is a reflection of the physical side of the transactions in the market. If the premium of Aluminum rises there could be many traders who would be interested to do physical trades and get the short term benefit of making money from the higher premium, which he would lose if he did not take the opportunity. In fact as the premium rises, it rises because the physical demand needs to be balanced by the availability of supply at a price that makes economic sense. In sum, premium rise would make more metal available for sale for the traders, thus taking metal off the warehousing deals and the contango loses the shine as more supply is made available. If the underlying demand becomes stronger the tension between these alternate proposals of business becomes even tenser. Very low interest rates, actually is another part of the puzzle. Had the interest rates been higher the whole economics would have shifted. The real reason why this game is still lasting is because at such low interest rates the banks seeking investment avenues have a much larger pool of money and a much lower pool of safe havens. The commodities market like oil, Aluminum and gold provide them just the perfect haven where inventories could be collaterized and money could be made from the contango. The depreciation of the dollar provides the perfect icing on the cake. There is additional money to be made if carry trades could be done with the dollar, as instead of zero interest rates, the interest rates would be actually negative if money was borrowed in dollars. The dollar therefore completes the tango for the sequence to last longer than we thought. When the end‐consumer sees this tango, he cannot help gasping for breath to have better credit conditions sorted out for himself or his related business. But he has a collateral problem to deal with,
which makes his case weak. Had he been part of this tango, it truly would have meant spreading the risk in a just way. In the current dispensation, it is actually he who would eventually pay the price of a hardened interest rate, because at the moment he is not even in the reckoning for getting part of the pie at low rates. This asymmetry unless sorted out, the real bridging of the output gap would never be possible at a speed that would benefit large number of people in the economy. The sharing of the risks has always been the most puzzling phenomenon, and banks again have picked up their best options amongst many. Taking Amartya Sen’s view from his book, the Idea of Justice, there is always one option amongst many that we choose from. It may not be the best seen from different angles, as absolute justice is an illusion. Germany for example chooses ‘short time work’ and protects jobs, U.S. on the other hand does not. Surely Germany has much less unemployment rate that spills over to its GDP as we see in their recovery. U.S. recovers in GDP, with a higher unemployment rate. The question is whether the two results are similar and are good for the economy in the long run. Zurich, 13th November’09