Augustin Et Al, 2016. Role Of Food Processing In Food And Nutrition Security.pdf

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Role of food processing in food and nutrition security Article  in  Trends in Food Science & Technology · August 2016 DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2016.08.005

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Accepted Manuscript Role of food processing in food and nutrition security Mary Ann Augustin, Malcolm Riley, Regine Stockmann, Louise Bennett, Andreas Kahl, Trevor Lockett, Megan Osmond, Peerasak Sanguansri, Welma Stonehouse, Ian Zajac, Lynne Cobiac PII:

S0924-2244(15)30188-6

DOI:

10.1016/j.tifs.2016.08.005

Reference:

TIFS 1856

To appear in:

Trends in Food Science & Technology

Received Date: 11 December 2015 Revised Date:

4 July 2016

Accepted Date: 13 August 2016

Please cite this article as: Augustin, M.A., Riley, M., Stockmann, R., Bennett, L., Kahl, A., Lockett, T., Osmond, M., Sanguansri, P., Stonehouse, W., Zajac, I., Cobiac, L., Role of food processing in food and nutrition security, Trends in Food Science & Technology (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2016.08.005. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

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Role of food processing in food and nutrition security

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Mary Ann Augustin1a* Malcolm Riley2b, Regine Stockmann1a, Louise Bennett1a,

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Andreas Kahl2c, Trevor Lockett2d, Megan Osmond1d, Peerasak Sanguansri1a, Welma

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Stonehouse2b, Ian Zajac2c, Lynne Cobiac2c

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CSIRO Agriculture & Foods; 2CSIRO Health & Biosecurity

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a

671 Sneydes Road, Werribee, VIC 3030, Australia

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b

South Australian Medical Research Institute Building, North Terrace, Adelaide SA

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5000, Australia

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Gate 13, Kintore Ave, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia

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Riverside Corporate Park, 11 Julius Avenue, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia

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E-mail address: [email protected] (M.A. Augustin)

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*Corresponding author.

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ABSTRACT

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Background: Food and nutrition security, a major global challenge, relies on the adequate supply of safe, affordable and nutritious fresh and processed foods to all

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people. The challenge of supplying healthy diets to 9 billion people in 2050 will in

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part be met through increase in food production. However, reducing food losses

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throughout the supply chain from production to consumption and sustainable

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enhancements in preservation, nutrient content, safety and shelf life of foods,

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enabled by food processing will also be essential.

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Scope and Approach: This review describes developments in primary food

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production systems and the role of food processing on population health and food

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and nutrition security. It emphasises the need to monitor the attitudes and values of

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consumers in order to better understand factors that may lead to negative

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perceptions about food processing.

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Key Findings and Conclusions: For a resource constrained world, it is essential to have a balanced approach to both energy and nutrient content of foods.

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Environmental sustainability is critical and both the agrifood production and the food

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processing sectors will be challenged to use less resources to produce greater

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quantities of existing foods and develop innovative new foods that are nutritionally

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appropriate for the promotion of health and well-being, have long shelf lives and are

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conveniently transportable. Healthy diets which meet consumer expectations

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produced from resilient and sustainable agrifood systems need to be delivered in a

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changing world with diminishing natural resources. An integrated multi-sectoral

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approach across the whole food supply chain is required to address global food and

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nutrition insecurity.

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Keywords:

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Food security; nutrition security; food supply chain; food processing; healthy diets;

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consumer perception.

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Highlights: •

Food processing has a critical role in achieving food and nutrition security

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•

Reducing food losses is an important strategy to maximize efficiency of

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resource use

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A balanced approach to both energy and nutrient content of foods is required

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Consumer concern about food processing must be addressed for acceptance

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A holistic approach to food supply chain efficiency and sustainable diets is needed

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•

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of benefits

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1. Introduction

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Food and nutrition security is a global challenge, and a prerequisite for a healthy

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and peaceful society. Food security exists when “all people, at all times, have

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physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that

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meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life”.

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Nutrition security “exists when secure access to an appropriately nutritious diet is

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coupled with a sanitary environment, adequate health services and care, in order to

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ensure a healthy and active life” (FAO, IFAD, & WFP, 2015).

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About 795 million people in the world were undernourished in 2014-16 (FAO, IFAD, & WFP, 2015) while more than 2 billion people were overweight or obese in

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2013 (Ng et al., 2014). To be able to feed the world population that is expected to

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increase from 7.3 billion today to 9 billion in 2050, an increase in agricultural

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productivity by 30-40% is required by 2050 just to meet the dietary energy needs.

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The energy gap can be addressed by reducing demand, lessening the current level

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of food waste or increasing food production (Keating, Herrero, Carberry, Gardener, &

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Cole, 2014). While considering food demand in terms of calories to fulfil energy

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needs is one way to examine global food requirements, fundamental requirements of

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macronutrients and micronutrients for good health need to be met. It is essential to

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take into account the potential overconsumption of nutrients, changing demographic

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structure, consumer choice and cultural context of diets.

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Over the past 50 years, feeding our rapidly growing global population was achieved through increases in agricultural productivity (DeFries et al., 2015).

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degradation will still be critical, this alone may not be sufficient to meet the nutritional

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demands of the projected population expansion. Food processing is required to

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increase useful life of foods, optimize nutrient availability and food quality, and

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reduce losses and waste. Biodiversity, ecosystems and cultural heritage are a

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consideration when developing affordable sustainable diets for all people.

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Sustainable diets have low environmental impacts and contribute to healthy life of

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present and future generations (Johnston, Fanzo, & Cogill, 2014). Reducing the

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prevalence of food insecurity today and in future will require technological solutions

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through collaborative efforts across agriculture, food, nutrition and health that are

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acceptable to society. It is clear that many considerations need to be factored into a

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discussion of food and nutrition security, which also include effective distribution

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channels between where food is produced and required, the differing food

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regulations in various regions, the role of indigenous foods, religion and culture,

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urbanization, biodiversity and climate change (Rolle, 2011; Burlingame & Dernini,

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2012, Muchenje & Mukumbo, 2015). An integrated multi-sectorial systems approach

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to food supply chain efficiency and sustainable diets is needed (Lake et al., 2012;

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van Mil, Foegeding, Windhab, Perrot, & van der Linden, 2014; Wu, Ho, Nah, & Chau,

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2014). The focus of this review is on the role of innovative and sustainable primary

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production systems and food processing in addressing challenges in food and

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nutrition security.

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2. Primary production systems

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Resilient production systems for sustainable diets have to be developed and managed whilst mitigating climate change, preserving biodiversity and the

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environment, while taking into account societal needs and expectations. The

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productivity of food systems should focus on innovation for improving nutritional

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needs, and providing aid to farmers to adopt innovations for sustainable

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intensification and novel food sources (Ingram et al., 2013). Consideration of multiple

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desirable endpoints requires consideration of synergies and trade-offs in the

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competing demands in production systems and sustainable diets so that food

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security is not compromised (Garnett, 2013).

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2.1 Crop Production Systems

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Biofortification of crops is one of the approaches that may be used for alleviating

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global nutrition insecurity (Arsenault, Hijmans, & Brown, 2015). Biofortification of

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crops that are part of the staple diet of local populations is an effective approach to

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improve the nutrient density and nutritional quality of the agricultural produce. The

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use of conventional plant breeding or transgenic methods may be used for

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introducing desirable nutrient traits into food crops. HarvestPlus, an interdisciplinary

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global alliance, has developed varieties of food crops with higher levels of

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micronutrients. Biofortified crops developed and released in the HarvestPlus

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program include cassava, maize and sweet potato high in vitamin A, high-iron beans

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and high-zinc wheat, millet and maize (www.harvestplus.org). These biofortified food

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staples which are denser in micronutrients provide a greater percentage of the

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recommended daily allowance and reduce malnutrition, especially in rural

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communities. The technical feasibility of providing micronutrient dense crops without

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT affecting agronomic traits has been demonstrated and may be a cost effective

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method for reducing micronutrient deficiencies in vulnerable populations (Nestel,

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Bouis, Meenakshi, & Pfeiffer, 2006). The fortification of crops with the essential

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amino acids, lysine and methionine, has attracted attention because of the

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potentially limited supply of these amino acids, especially in developing countries

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where poor populations do not consume sufficient protein from animal sources.

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Advanced breeding methods have yielded higher protein maize. Transgenic

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approaches have been successful in increasing the level of lysine in Arabidopsis

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seeds, rice and soybean while increases in methionine have been obtained in

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Arabidopsis, alfalfa and potato leaves as well as in the storage proteins of canola,

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rice, soybean and rice. However more work is required to enable production of crops

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with increased levels of lysine and methionine with a normal phenotype (Galili, &

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Amir, 2013).

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Foods rich in dietary fibre and resistant starch have the potential to reduce the

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incidence of Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease and improve metabolic and

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gut health and this led to interest in improving cereal grain carbohydrates for health

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outcomes (Lafiandra, Riccardi, & Shewry, 2014). Conventional plant breeding can

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produce barley grains with high levels of resistant starch and beta-glucan, and a low

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glycaemic index (Morell et al., 2003). A high beta-glucan, high amylose barley has

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been incorporated as an ingredient into a range of processed food products. A high

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resistant starch wheat has also been produced (Regina et al., 2015).

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The benefits of long chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) for

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maintenance of good health, brain and eye development in early childhood and

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reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases and inflammatory diseases are well

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recognised (FAO, 2010; Lorente-Cebrian, Costa, Navas-Carretero, Zabala, Martinez, 7

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eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in plants (Petrie et

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al., 2010). The ability to achieve a sustainable crop source of LC-PUFAs will reduce

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the reliance on fish and other marine sources.

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Livestock is an important contributor to global diets. Meat and livestock are a

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2.2 Livestock production systems

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good source of dietary protein. The consumption of meat and livestock products is

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increasing due to increasing population, especially in the developing world, with a

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demand for these foods, a growth in economic wealth and urbanisation. Strategies

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for improving the resilience of animal production systems need to be considered in

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the face of climate change, as higher temperatures affects the sustainability of

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livestock production and the quality and yield of animal products such as milk and

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eggs (Nardone, Ronchi, Lactera, Ranieri, & Bernabucci, 2010). For livestock

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production systems, there are challenges for achieving balance by resource

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minimization strategies which address the impact of land management on the

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ecosystem. A recent example is the use of tannin-rich ruminant feedstock to improve

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the production yield and quality of animal products in semi-arid areas (Mlambo, &

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Mapiye, 2015). Improving the productivity and efficiency of livestock systems

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requires an understanding of the interactions between animal genetics and the

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environment and between the livestock, the plants and the soil within pastoral

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ecosystems (Greenwood, & Bell, 2014, Herrero, & Thornton, 2013).

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Plant-based diets generally require less energy, land and water to produce compared to meat-based diets and from this perspective, lacto-ovo-vegetarian diets

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may be considered to be more sustainable than meat-based diets (Pimentel, &

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Pimentel, 2003). However, livestock production provides the ability to generate food

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from environments unsuitable for other food production. Notably livestock efficiently

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converts low quality forage into energy dense meat and milk food products.

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Improving livestock productivity will assist in meeting the dietary needs for protein

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and the preferences of many consumers. Sustainable livestock production systems

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can provide efficient conversion of feeds on land unsuitable for other forms of

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agriculture, maintain biodiversity, and minimize carbon footprints whilst ensuring

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good animal welfare (Broom, Galindo, Murgueitio, & Fernandez, 2013). Ruminant

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livestock can form an important component of mixed livestock-cropping systems to

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broaden the commodity base, increase biodiversity and optimise nutrient cycling and

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biomass utilisation.

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The efficiency of the intensive livestock industry has shown remarkable gains in productivity. For example, in Australia the annual milk yield per cow has doubled

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from 2,900 litres to as high as 5,900 litres over the last 30 years, as a consequence

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of improvements in herd genetics, advances in pasture management and

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supplementary feeding regimes (http://www.dairyaustralia.com.au/Markets-and-

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statistics/Production-and-sales/Milk/Yield.aspx). Individual animal productivity

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continues to increase indicating that there are still substantial unrealised genetic

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gains. Current efforts to accelerate these gains are primarily focussed on the use of

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genetic markers to inform breeding decisions.

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Genetics strategies have been used to improve the meat quality, the health of the animals, the resilience of the livestock to environmental challenges and to 9

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quality such as tenderness, intramuscular fat and omega-3 fatty acid content are

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moderately heritable and can be altered by breeding (Hopkins, Fogarty, & Mortimer,

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2011). Better matching of elite genotypes to environmental and forage conditions

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either for improved productivity or health benefits and optimised forage assimilation

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is expected to provide further improvements. As an alternative to genetic strategies,

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feeding regimes are already being used to increase the level of unsaturated fatty

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acid composition in lamb meat (Howes, Bekhit, Burritt, & Campbell, 2015), beef

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(Mapiye et al., 2015) and omega-3 fatty acids in pork (Dugan et al., 2015).

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While improving the nutrient profile of livestock and primary produce in a sustainable production system may be achievable, the effects of the altered

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agricultural produce on the quality, shelf-life implications and its processability into

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food products have to be considered to successfully bring the altered produce from

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the farm to the consumer. For example, there are challenges of making consistent

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and differentiated dairy products when processing milk with altered composition and

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structure arising from changed on-farm practices which need to be taken into

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account during dairy product processing (Augustin, Udabage, Juliano, & Clarke,

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2013).

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3. Food processing

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Food processing is any deliberate change in a food that occurs before it is

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available. Typically inedible raw materials are processed into more useful, shelf-

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stable and palatable foods or potable beverages for human consumption

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(International Food Information Council Foundation, 2010). Since prehistoric times, 10

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT food processing has been a key aspect of the food production chain that links

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agricultural production with the provision of food to people in the form and at the time

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it is required (Floros et al., 2010). Some of the common industrial processes used in

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food manufacturing include milling, cooling/freezing, smoking, heating, canning,

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fermentation, drying, extrusion cooking. Processing causes changes to the

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components of food and some of these changes can result in both detrimental as

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well as beneficial effects on the food quality, depending on the process used

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(Weaver et al., 2014). Although there has been many reports about the negative

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aspects of food processing which has focussed on issues such as the detrimental

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effects of heat treatment on food quality (e.g. formation of acrylamide, nutritional

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degradation, high sugar in formulated foods, introduction of trans fats into foods), it is

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essential to have a balanced view which includes the benefits of food processing

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(van Boekel et al., 2010). Some of the benefits of food processing include

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destruction of food-borne microbes and toxins, improved bioavailability of nutrients,

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extension of shelf life, improved sensory characteristics and functional properties

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(van Boekel et al., 2010).

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Food processing also encompasses the use of additives which are used to increase quality (e.g. taste and appearance), extend shelf life and improve the safety

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of foods. The management of risks to food safety and stability constitutes an

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essential element of food security. Traditionally, brining and pickling were used. A

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range of chemical additives (e.g. sulfur dioxide for preservation of wine, nitrites in

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bacon), anti-microbials (e.g. benzoic acid) and antioxidants (e.g. tertiary

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butylhydroquinone for retarding oxidation of oils) has been employed over the years.

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However, there is now a trend towards the incorporation of natural preservatives and

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the phasing out of some synthetic chemical additives. There is increasing interest in

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(e.g. ascorbic acid, citric acid from fruits) and antioxidants (e.g. Maillard reaction

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products, polyphenols, rosemary extract) to improve food quality and shelf life

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(Kumar, Yadav, Ahmad, & Narsaiah, 2015; Vergis, Gokulakrishnan, Agarwal, &

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Kumar, 2015). In addition to the move to natural food additives, newer delivery

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systems (e.g. nanoencapsulation), smart additives and packages are also being

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developed as an alternative to direct incorporation of additives to food (Carocho,

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Barreiro, Morales, & Ferreira, 2014).

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3.1 Traditional food processes

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To a large extent, food processing has been used to preserve food, improve food safety and maintain quality. Over the last 100 years, traditional food preparation and

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preservation processes have been industrialised. The industrialization of food

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processing, with its economies of scale, has increased the availability of foods in

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both in local and export markets. For example, spray drying of milk was a means of

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preservation of milk but also enabled milk to be available in countries which did not

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have an adequate supply of local milk. The availability of milk powders spawned the

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growth of recombined dairy products such as recombined evaporated milk in Asia in

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the 1960’s and 1970’s (Sanderson, 1970). Recombined dairy products still serve

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many communities in Asia, the Middle East, Africa and South America.

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Processing can occur at various points along the supply chain. It can be applied

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proximate to food harvest or capture (e.g. initial processing of agricultural

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commodities such as flour milling or fish canning) or further downstream when it is 12

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT applied in the manufacture of formulated food products (e.g. bread, biscuit, noodles,

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yogurt). Table 1 provides selected examples of the impacts of common food

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processing operations and selected examples of processes for converting food

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materials into final products are summarised in Table 2. The evolution of food

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processing, particularly traditional food processing technologies, and how processed

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food has contributed to nutrition over history has been reviewed (Welch, & Mitchell,

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2000; Weaver et al., 2014).

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3.2 Emerging food processes

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While traditional food processing will continue to play a major role in providing food for people, it is expected that there will also be an increasing role for the

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application of novel and emerging food processing technology for improving the

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quality of food and processing efficiency. Novel and emerging technologies,

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particularly high pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric field (PEF), cool plasma,

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UV irradiation and ultrasound have been examined as treatments for improving the

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shelf life of foods and altering material properties (Sanchez-Moreno, De Ancos,

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Plaza, Elez-Martinez, & Cano, 2009; Knorr, Froehling, Jaeger, Reineke, Schlueter, &

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Schoessler, 2011, Tao & Sun, 2015). The application of emerging, non-thermal

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techniques was shown to potentially reduce energy requirements for food processing

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and may contribute to improved energy efficiency in the food industry (Toepfl,

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Mathys, Heinz, & Knorr, 2006).

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Of the emerging technologies, there has been most commercial application of HPP. In HPP, pressures in the range of 200–1000 MPa are used. HPP disrupts 13

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT microbial cells but retains nutrients and flavour molecules, allowing shelf-life

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extension without the detrimental effects of high temperatures on food quality whilst

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retaining the fresh-like character of foods (Hendrickx, & Knorr 2002). HPP has been

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commercialized as a cold pasteurization process for a range of products including

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guacamole, processed meats, tomato salsas, oysters and yogurts (Knorr et al.,

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2011; Tokuşoğlu & Swanson, 2014). However, more investigation is still needed to

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understand how HPP can be used to modulate enzyme reactions and fermentation,

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and its effects on food-spoilage viruses and bacterial spores (Knorr et al., 2011). In

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PEF, short electric pulses are applied to food, causing permeabilization of microbes

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and the cells of plant and animal tissue. It may be used as an alternative to

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pasteurization (Knorr et al., 2011). In ultrasound processing, sound waves are

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transmitted through the food medium. Both low (20-100 kHz) and high (400 kHz and

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above) frequencies have been used in food processing. Low frequency ultrasound

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has been applied for disintegration and homogenization of foods, and to enhance

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extraction of components (Vilkhu, Mawson, Simons, & Bates, 2008, Knorr et al,

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2011). Ultrasound may also be used to improve the efficiency of drying, filtration,

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brining, freezing and thawing processes (Tao & Sun, 2015). High frequency

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ultrasound, with the creation of standing waves, facilitates the separation of oils from

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emulsions such as milk (Juliano et al., 2011) and increases the yield of oil in the

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palm oil milling process (Juliano et al., 2013). HPP, PEF and ultrasound can also

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enhance extraction of anthocyanins from grape by-products with up to three, four

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and two fold increase in extraction respectively (Corrales, Toepfl, Butz, Knorr, &

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Tauscher, 2008).

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Most operations in the food processing industry are energy-intensive and do not

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optimize the use of edible agricultural food sources. The sustainability of the current

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practice of industrial scale food processing is therefore sub-optimal. An example of

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There needs to be a re-evaluation about how food processing can be better applied

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to create food products more efficiently, involving lower resource use and

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accompanied by lower production of waste (van der Goot et al., 2016). Better

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integration along the whole food supply chain from the farm to the consumer, with

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attention to quality, sustainability, logistics, food products and processes is also

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required (Manzini, & Accorsi, 2013).

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3.3.1 Food processing to reduce food waste

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The amount of food that is wasted along the global supply chain from farm to consumer is about 1.6 Gtonnes (or about one third of the total produced based on

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weight) and 1.3 Gtonnes of this waste is edible (Gustavsson, Cederberg, &

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Sonnesson, 2011; FAO, 2011; FAO, 2013). In terms of kcal/person/day, this

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amounts to 24% of the produced food supply (614 kcal/person/day) that is lost within

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the food supply which could feed 1 billion people if the food wasted was halved

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(Kummu et al., 2012). Food may be lost from the supply because of safety and

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quality considerations, and under-utilization of edible by-products and side streams

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of food processing. Food losses and waste can occur on farm, between farm to

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retail, at retail level and after it has reached the consumer. The amounts of food

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losses and waste along the chain varies with the type of commodities and food

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products and between various countries. Food losses in developing countries are

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>40% at post-harvest and processing while in developed countries, >40% of the

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losses occur at retail and consumer levels (FAO, 2011).

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Food processing may be used to reduce the amount of food lost by using preservation processes, such as freezing, drying, fermentation, canning,

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pasteurisation and sterilisation, and packaging technologies to increasing the shelf-

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life of products (Langelaan et al., 2013).

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Waste in food processing has partly come about because of the food industry’s

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evolution towards provision of refined single food components (e.g. protein), a food

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product or ingredient with a defined composition (e.g. whey protein concentrate) or a

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food product that meets standards for appearance (e.g. acceptable coloured and

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shaped fruits and vegetables). There are many potential uses for underutilized edible

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products (Fig 1). For example, protein-based by-products of animal processing may

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be used for production of bioactive hydrolysates (Martinez-Alvarez, Chamorro, &

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Brenes, 2015). Wheat-bran, a by-product of wet milling of wheat is currently under

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utilized. It contains proteins, minerals, B complex vitamins, and dietary fibre. The

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protein component itself represents ~ 15.5 million tonnes of high quality wheat

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protein that is wasted annually. There is interest in extracting the protein for use an

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ingredient in food and for conversion into bioactive peptides (Balandrán-Qunitana,

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Mercado-Ruiz, & Mendoza-Wilson, 2015). By-products of fruit juice processing are

368

another untapped resource. Components in apple pomace such as dietary fibre

369

(pectin, hemicelluloses, cellulose and lignin) and phenolic compounds (flavonols,

370

phenolic acids, dihydrochalcones and anthocyanins) may be extracted and put back

371

into the food chain (Rabetafika, Bchir, Blecker, & Richel, 2014). In the case of the

372

olive oil and palm oil industry, valuable phenolic compounds with antioxidant

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properties may be recovered from the oil mill wastewater (El-Abbassi, Kiai, & Hafidi

374

2012; Rahmanian, Jafari, & Galanakis, 2014).

375

3.3.2 Resource efficient food processing

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There are opportunities for reducing water and energy use in food processing and to develop zero discharge processes (van der Goot et al., 2016). An example is

380

process intensification, which result in less water use (i.e. more concentrated

381

processing) by using dry milling processes for separation of components in place of

382

wet milling (van der Goot et al., 2016).

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In the dairy industry, there has been interest in reducing the energy for milk

384

powder production by increasing the total solids of the milk concentrate that is fed

385

into the dryer. Removal of water by spray drying requires significantly more energy

386

than the removal of water in an evaporator. Increasing the total solids concentration

387

of milk that is fed into the dryer from 50 to 52% solids saves 6 % energy and further

388

increase to 60% solids reduces dryer energy requirements by 26% (Fox, Akkerman,

389

Straatsma, & de Jong, 2010).

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Recognition of the global challenge for more efficient use of resources is

391

reflected in Goal 12 of the United Nations sustainable development goals. This goal

392

is to ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. The food sector uses

393

30% of the total global energy use and accounts for 22% of the total greenhouse gas

394

emissions. The sector therefore has a responsibility to develop strategies to address

395

this challenge (http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-consumption-

396

production/). 17

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4. Processed food: Intake and effects on health

399

Processed foods are an important component of the food supply (Weaver et

401

al., 2014). Few would argue that the increased bioavailability of macronutrients like

402

starch from the processing of grains to flour and subsequent incorporation into

403

breads, enhanced safety of meat achieved by refrigeration and cooking, improved

404

safety of milk achieved through pasteurization and the year round availability of

405

seasonal fruits and vegetables achieved through preservation, canning and freezing

406

have not been beneficial to society and nutritional security. However, there are also

407

processed foods that are high in salt, refined starch, sugar and fat which present

408

unhealthy food options to the consumer.

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Strategies to reduce sugar and salt in processed foods are expected to have

410

significant impact in reducing non-communicable diseases (MacGregor, & Hashem,

411

2014; Webster, Trieu, Dunford, & Hawkes, 2014). Several countries in Europe, the

412

Americas and the Western Pacific Region which have introduced salt reduction

413

programs have reported reductions in salt levels in one or more food categories. The

414

strategies involved working with industry, either voluntarily or mandatorily, and

415

included food categories such as bread, breakfast cereal, soup, sauces (Webster et

416

al., 2014). In Australia salt levels in bread were estimated to be reduced by 9%, in

417

cereals by 25% and in processed meat by 8% during the period 2010 to 2013

418

(Trevena, Neal, Dunford, & Wu, 2014). To enhance the effectiveness of these

419

strategies further coordination by government to include food reformulation, public

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education, food labelling, and robust monitoring and evaluation is advocated

421

(Webster et al., 2015).

422

4.1 Intake of processed foods

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Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2003-2008) on intake of food by Americans showed that minimally processed foods (e.g. washed

427

and packaged fruit and vegetables) contributed about 14% of total dietary energy,

428

and a higher percentage of dietary fibre, vitamin D, calcium, potassium and vitamin

429

B12. Processed foods provided about 57% of total energy intake, and a higher

430

percentage for sodium, added sugars, iron and folate. The other source of food was

431

foods from restaurants and dining halls which provided about 29% of energy intake

432

with a higher percentage for sodium and added sugars (Weaver et. al., 2014).

433

Another recent analysis of the food supply of the United States determined that more

434

than three-quarters of food energy in purchases by households in America came

435

from moderately (15.9%) and highly processed (61.0%) foods and beverages in

436

2012 (Poti, Mendez, Ng, & Popkin, 2015). The conclusion is that highly processed

437

food is a dominant, unshifting part of purchasing patterns in the United States, but

438

such foods may have higher saturated fat, sugar and sodium contents than less

439

processed foods. A relatively wide variation in nutrient content within food categories

440

suggests better food choices are likely to be beneficial.

441

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A food classification system developed in Brazil (Monteiro, 2009) groups food

442

into unprocessed or minimally processed foods (group 1), processed culinary

443

ingredients including oils, fats, pastas, starches and sugar (group 2) and ultra19

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT processed food and drink products which are usually ready-to-eat or ready-to-heat

445

(group 3). In Canada, the mean percentage of total energy intake from ultra-

446

processed foods rose from 28.7% in 1938/39 to 61.7% in 2011 (Moubarac et al.,

447

2013). This trend is spreading with the growing affluence of population groups, as

448

observed by the increased rate of consumption of ultra-processed foods in low- and

449

middle-income countries, compared to high-income countries (Moodie et. al., 2013).

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4.2 Undesirable consequences of current highly processed formulated foods

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There is little doubt that processed foods and consumption of excess calories derived from this category, among other factors, have played a critical role in the

455

rising levels of obesity in western society and increasingly, the developing world

456

(Finucane et al., 2011) with its associated legacy of rising prevalence of non-

457

communicable, chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease (Anand, & Yusuf,

458

2011), metabolic disease and diabetes (Danaei et al., 2011), as well as certain

459

cancers (World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research,

460

2007). It was estimated that halving the intake of ultra-processed food in the United

461

Kingdom by replacing these with minimally processed and culinary ingredients would

462

result in approximately 14,235 fewer coronary deaths and approximately 7,820 fewer

463

stroke deaths by 2030, comprising an almost 13% mortality reduction (Moreira et. al.,

464

2015). A trend towards a low-fat, high refined carbohydrate diet may have

465

contributed to the current epidemic of obesity lipid abnormalities, type 2 diabetes,

466

and metabolic syndrome (Weinberg, 2004). The International Agency for Research

467

on Cancer, the cancer agency of the World Health Organization stated that there is a

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small risk of cancer with the consumption of processed meat (International Agency

469

for Research on Cancer, 2015).

470

The partial hydrogenation process increases the degree of saturation of the fat and therefore the hardness of the fat and its oxidative stability, but the process

472

introduces trans fatty acids which are harmful for health (Mensink & Katan, 1990).

473

Partially hydrogenated fats were used for obtaining a desirable texture of margarine,

474

baked goods and increasing the resistance of oils to oxidation during deep frying

475

(Korver & Katan, 2006). On 16th June 2015, the FDA removed partially hydrogenated

476

oils from the “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) list and food manufacturers will

477

have three years to comply with the legislation that restricts partially hydrogenated

478

fats in human food.

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4.3 Desirable effects of food fortified or enriched during food processing

The fortification and enrichment of foods during processing have beneficial

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effects on population health. Endemic brain damage, goitre and cretinism can be

484

prevented by correcting for iodine deficiency and provided the rationale for the iodine

485

fortification of salt with associated major impacts on the prevalence of these

486

conditions (Hetzel, 2012).The introduction of commercially produced iodised salt

487

during the middle of the last century substantially reduced iodine deficiency (Pearce,

488

Anderson, & Zimmermann, 2013).

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Low levels of folic acid in the diet of newly pregnant women causes neural tube

490

defects and severe congenital malformations, affecting the brain and spinal cord in

491

the developing foetus. Reducing the incidence of neural tube defects has been 21

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 492

reported in countries following mandated fortification of food with folate, namely

493

Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Costa Rica, Iran, Jordan, South Africa and the

494

USA; with reductions as high as 58% in Costa Rica, 55% in Chile, 49% in Argentina

495

and 49% in Canada (Castillo-Lancellotti, Tur, & Uauy, 2013). The role of Vitamin D beyond bone health is increasingly being recognised

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(O’Mahony, Stepien, Gibney, Nugent, & Brennan, 2011). A range of vitamin D

498

enhanced foods such as milk, yogurt, cheese, orange juice, soup and bread have

499

been shown to effectively increase circulating vitamin D levels. Foods that made the

500

greatest contribution to vitamin D intake varied between countries according to

501

habitual dietary patterns (O’Mahony et al., 2011).

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Long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n-3 PUFAs) are essential for many biological functions, having wide ranging health benefits from brain

504

development and function to heart health and immune function (FAO, 2011; Lorente-

505

Cebrian et al., 2013). However, the capacity of humans to synthesise LC n-3 PUFA

506

de novo is limited (Arterburn, Hall, & Oken, 2006) and their assimilation through the

507

diet is therefore essential. Many people consume fish or other seafood infrequently,

508

resulting in an inadequate intake of LC omega-3 PUFA which may result in sub-

509

optimal health (Papanikolaou, Brooks, Reider, & Fulgoni, 2014). The fortification of

510

foods with LC n-3 PUFA could contribute substantially to achieving recommended

511

intakes of this essential fatty acid (Rahmawaty, Lyons-Wall, Charlton, Batterham, &

512

Meyer, 2014).

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The difficulties associated with the introduction of the LC n-3 PUFA and other

514

sensitive nutrients without compromising food quality can be overcome by the design

515

of appropriate encapsulation systems (Augustin & Sanguansri, 2015). For example,

22

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT microencapsulation masks the fishy smell and taste of LC n-3 PUFA and protects

517

them against oxidation without loss of bioavailability (Sanguansri et al., 2015). The

518

ability to produce shelf-stable encapsulated fish oil ingredients enabled the

519

incorporation of LC n-3 PUFA into a wide range of food products including infant and

520

toddler formula, breads and baked goods.

521

5. Consumer understanding of food processing

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The obvious customer for the food industry is the consumer and

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understanding their attitudes towards food processing is necessary, especially given

526

that underlying attitudes are a major factor in purchase decisions. Without consumer

527

acceptance, otherwise appropriate food processing strategies to address nutrition

528

security risks may ultimately fail.

531

5.1 What do consumers want?

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In regards to food processing, research on consumers in the United States

533

suggests that people desire foods which are affordable, safe, convenient, fresh

534

(minimal processing and packaging), natural and without preservatives, and without

535

negative attributes (e.g. unhealthy; high fat, salt and/or sugar) (Zink, 1997).

536

Consumers are also increasingly demanding products that not only cause no harm

537

but which may also have protective effects such as reducing risk factors associated

538

with disease (e.g. high cholesterol), and which promote healthy aging through

23

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT enhanced psychological health and wellbeing (e.g. mood and cognition) (Zink, 1997).

540

This quest for health can have a significant impact on food processors. For instance,

541

today’s marketplace has more perishable products and more innovative packaging

542

than in previous decades, and consumer reservations regarding chemical

543

preservation has impacted various preservation methods.

544

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Observations from studies in the United States and the United Kingdom

demonstrate that sustainable practices undertaken by food manufacturers can

546

influence a customer’s decision to purchase, giving positive feedback about the

547

organisation and cost savings arising from implementation of sustainable systems

548

and processes (Zink, 1997; Bhaskaran, Polonsky, Cary, & Fernandez, 2006). Other

549

desired attributes include a shorter distance from the point of primary production and

550

the point of purchase, sustainability of production, and foods that are culturally

551

aligned and provide a pleasurable food experience (Australian Institute of Health and

552

Welfare, 2012).

555

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5.2 Negative consumer perceptions about food processing

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According to a survey of American consumers, there exists a variety of

557

perceptions, both negative and positive, about certain aspects of the role of food

558

processing (International Food Information Council Foundation, 2012). The reasons

559

for negative perceptions about processed foods are many, and include mistrust of

560

technology, low level of understanding of processing, advertising that has at times

561

taken advantage of controversies relating to food processing, the increasing

562

prevalence of obesity in many industrialised countries, the use of chemicals in food 24

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT production or as additives, and concerns related to specific ingredients including salt

564

and sugar (Floros et.al., 2010). Further to these issues are the observations that

565

many popular processed foods are of poor nutritional value and strongly held beliefs

566

that multinational food companies specialising in processed food control the food

567

intake of large numbers of people (Williams, & Nestle, 2015). It is important that

568

there be more research aimed at obtaining objective information about the effects of

569

processing and to communicate this to the consumer in an unbiased way.

570

Organizations which are seen as trusted advisors with no vested interested are best

571

placed to deliver the objective messages to society.

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5.3 Consumer food purchasing behaviour

574

Consumer acceptance of new food technologies and processing methods is

576

critical for the commercial success of processed foods. Adequate economic returns

577

to manufacturers are unlikely if food products do not appeal to the needs and desires

578

of end users. Consumer food purchasing behaviour is particularly complex but a

579

number of theories exist which attempt to describe these behaviours. Utility Theory,

580

for example, regards purchasing behaviour as being largely rational (Levin, &

581

Milgrom, 2004). It suggests that consumer choices are based on the expected

582

outcomes of decisions, and that consumers are only concerned with self-interest.

583

Alternate theories regard consumer behaviours as being driven by a wide range of

584

internal factors including need recognition, evaluation of alternatives, the building of

585

purchase intentions, the act of purchasing and subsequent consumption (Engel,

586

Kollat, and Blackwell, 1968). Since the 1950’s, it has been increasingly recognised

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT that external factors also play a major role in consumer purchasing decisions. These

588

factors include product marketing, social good and environmental concerns. In

589

addition, whether or not consumers buy food is not only about availability of foods

590

and whether they are healthy. It is influenced by how ingredients and foods can be

591

substituted, and the manner in which they are transformed and marketed (Hawkes,

592

Friel, Lobstein, & Lang, 2012). Both cognitive and emotional factors influence a

593

consumer decision to purchase unhealthy foods and contribute to their less than

594

optimal food and beverage choices (Sierra, Taute, & Turri, 2015).

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Earned (news) media and social media do have a role to play in consumer

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perceptions and behaviour relating to food processing and technologies. Modern

597

news cycles have a rapid churn rate and individual stories have a relatively short life

598

span. Consumer conversations on social media such as Twitter, Facebook and

599

YouTube can have a marked impact on the food choices and the brands that

600

consumers purchase and thereby be an influencer of healthy choices (Liu & Lopez,

601

2016). However, medium and long term marketing campaigns by food and beverage

602

manufacturers also have a persuasive and pervasive in influencing consumer

603

attitudes and behaviour.

605

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607

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5.4 Addressing consumer concerns

Looking toward the future, it is important to consider the impact of new food

608

technologies in the marketplace. Whilst sensory perceptions are major drivers of

609

food choice, change in consumer sentiment towards a “fresh is best” viewpoint

610

presents particular challenges for the food processing industry. Typically, novel food26

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 611

related technologies, including processing, are met with significant concern (Cox,

612

Evans, & Lease, 2011).

613

There needs to be clear demonstration of benefits and safety of the new technologies to consumers (Jaeger, Knorr, Szabóc, Hámori, & Bánáti, 2015). Even

615

where new technologies are proven scientifically to produce food safe for human

616

consumption, consumer hesitance is difficult to change (Aoki, Shen, & Saijo, 2010).

617

For example, the impact of positive educational messages around food products

618

differentially changes perceptions, with favourable outcomes (i.e. change from

619

hesitance to acceptance) observed only in individuals who have sufficient trust in the

620

relevant information authority (Loebnitz, & Grunert, 2014).

621

622

6. Summary and Future Trends

624

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The challenges to feed the world in 2050 cannot be met through improvements in food production alone. Reduction and recovery of food losses throughout the food

626

chain from production to consumption and improvements in preservation,

627

transportation, nutritional content, safety and shelf life of foods will be key strategies

628

to combat food and nutrition demands of the future. A goal is to improve health of the

629

consumer and to achieve healthier ageing for the population. It is essential to

630

engage society in science to engender the trust of consumer in the food supply and

631

important to ensure ethical food production and responsible consumption for a

632

sustainable ecosystem (European Technology Platform, Strategic Research Agenda

633

2007-2020, http://etp.ciaa.eu). Global megatrends, which are due to shifts in

634

geopolitical, environmental, economic, social or technology conditions that

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT substantially change the way people live, will shape our world in the next 20 years.

636

Seven global megatrends recently identified are (i) More from less, (ii) Planetary

637

pushback, (iii) The silk highway, (iv) Forever young, (v) Digital immersion, (vi) Porous

638

boundaries and (v) Great expectations (Hajkowicz, 2015). These megatrends will

639

influence how we deal with food and nutrition security across the food supply chain

640

(Table 3). It is expected that the digital revolution provides new opportunities in food

641

processing automation, provenance and tracking providing a clear path to monitoring

642

individual and population intakes as well as the ethical and safety aspects of food

643

production. The agricultural sector will continue to increase productivity including

644

through the introduction of novel and improved crops and livestock and the food

645

processing industry will need to be agile to adapt to maximise the benefits for these

646

new feedstocks. Growth in population, economic activity and market opportunities

647

will be greatest in the Asian region, particularly, China and India. There is a need to

648

address the food preferences of all populations, as well as aging demographics,

649

when developing healthy food choices. A growing demand for foods with

650

substantiated health benefits is anticipated. Against the background of climate

651

change and diminishing resources reduction of the use of resources to produce

652

existing and improved foods will be paramount.

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In order to ensure future food and nutrition security, industry and consumers

654

must be considered in tandem. The challenge for food industry involves the

655

development of new processing technologies which ultimately associate with

656

economic advantage. However, in the absence of tangible positive attributes as

657

perceived by consumers, uptake of the products of new technologies and processes

658

may be lower than expected. The lay-expert gap in risk perception, and the moral

28

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 659

and ethical dimensions of how food is produced need to be considered for improved

660

consumer acceptance of processed foods (Lusk, Roosen, & Bieberstein, 2014). Healthy diets which meet consumer expectations produced from resilient and

661

environmentally sustainable agrifood systems need to be delivered in a changing

663

world with diminishing natural resources, changing demographics and increasing

664

urbanisation in a digital age (Gormley, 2015; Wu et al., 2015). In the future, low-

665

value food and underutilized edible biomass may be able to be processed back to

666

their constituent macro- and micro- nutrients that can then be reconstructed into new

667

foods, for example in the form of paints for 3D printing of foods (e.g. for second tier

668

natural food lookalikes) (Kim, Golding, & Archer, 2012). Advances in knowledge

669

regarding the characterisation and modification of the gut microbiome together with

670

developments in food technologies can potentially enhance the in vivo delivery of

671

bioactive ingredients with major impact on many aspects of health (Marchesi et al.,

672

2015).

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A multi-sectorial approach to improving food and nutrition security is required to address the complex societal challenge to feed the world responsibly and to

675

minimise global food and nutrition insecurity in a changing world. Engagement and

676

effective communication between all stake holders along the food supply chain,

677

including consumers and government, is essential for delivering innovative solutions

678

for food and nutrition security. There needs to be a closer integration between social

679

science and the sciences that underpin innovations in technology to understand and

680

respond to consumer concerns, opposition to technological solutions and address

681

issues that arise in the complex food supply chain (Lowe, Phillipson, & Lee, 2008,

682

Hinrichs, 2014).

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Acknowledgments: The contributions of CSIRO scientists, Ross Tellam & Aaron Ingham who

687

provided insights into the livestock production systems, and Crispin Howitt & Phil

688

Larkin for developments in crop systems, are gratefully acknowledged. The authors

689

would like to thank Steven McInnes (Human Capital International), and Sharyn

690

Morton & Deb Miller (CSIRO) for supporting the team in developing the

691

transdisciplinary approach, essential for addressing food and nutrition security.

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References

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Anand, S.S., & Yusuf, S. (2011). Stemming the global tsunami of cardiovascular disease.

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Lancet, 377(9765), 529-532.

Aoki, K., Shen, J., & Saijo, T. (2010). Consumer reaction to information on food additives: evidence from an eating experiment and a field survey. Journal of Economic Behavior &

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Organization, 73, 433-438.

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Arsenault, J.E., Hijmans, R.J., & Brown, K.H. (2015). Improving nutrition security through

701

agriculture: an analytical framework based on national food balance sheets to estimate

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nutritional adequacy of food supplies. Food Security, 7, 693-707.

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Arterburn, L.M., Hall, E.B., & Oken, H. (2006). Distribution, interconversion, and dose

704

response of n-3 fatty acids in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83,1467S-

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Augustin, M.A., & Sanguansri, L. (2015). Challenges and Solutions to Incorporation of Nutraceuticals in Foods. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 6, 463-477. Augustin, M.A., Udabage, P., Juliano, P., & Clarke, P.T. (2013). Towards a more sustainable diary industry: Integration across the farm-factory interface and the diary

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Balandrán-Qunitana, R.R., Mercado-Ruiz, J.N., & Mendoza-Wilson A.M. (2015). Wheat

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Bhaskaran, S., Polonsky, M., Cary, J., & Fernandez, S. (2006). Environmentally

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Carocho, M., Barreiro, M.F., Morales, P. & Ferreira, I.C.F.R. (2014). Adding molecules to

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Castillo-Lancellotti, C., Tur, J.A., & Uauy, R. (2013). Impact of folic acid fortification of flour on neural tube defects: a systematic review. Public Health Nutrition, 16, 901-911. 31

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738

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Farzadfar, F., Khang, Y.H., Stevens, G.A., Rao, M., Ali, M.K., Riley, L.M., Robinson,

741

C.A., & Ezzati, M. (2011). National, regional, and global trends in fasting plasma glucose

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DeFries, R., Fanzo, J., Remans, R., Palm, C., Wood, S., & Anderman, T.L. (2015). Global Nutrition: Metrics for land-scarce agriculture. Science, 349(6245), SI:238-240. Dugan, M.E., Vahmani, P., Turner, T.D., Mapiye, C., Juárez, M., Prieto, N., Beaulieu, A.D.,

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Zijlstra, R.T., Patience, J.F., & Aalhus, J.L. (2015). Pork as a source of omega-3 (n-3)

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Fig 1: Food processing – Possibilities for optimizing the food supply chain

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 1: Benefits and impacts of food processing operations

Preservation

Examples • • • •

Outcomes & Benefits

Pasteurization of • milk or juice Fermenting dairy • into cheese or yogurt Pickling or canning • produce Salting meats

•

Washing, pasteurizing, cooking, salting, drying, refrigerating, freezing

Processing to change flavour, texture, aroma, color or form

• • •

Milling grains Mixing ingredients Adding flavors and colors Molding foods and ingredients into shapes

•

Ready-to-serve meals Fast foods Convenience foods: Bottled drinks, meat jerky, cakes, cookies, breakfast cereal bars, frozen pizzas, baby food

•

Fortifying milk with vitamin D, salt with iodine, and grains with B vitamins, iron and folic acid

•

• • •

Processing to restore and/or raise nutrient levels in food

•

•

Food-borne pathogens and contaminants are removed or minimized, meaning that consumers are at a lower risk of foodborne illness

•

Manufacturers may gain higher profits and a foothold in a competitive market Consumers have access to a wider variety of products

•

Adds value to food products

Manufacturers may gain higher sales by responding to consumer demand for convenience food Consumers can eat virtually anywhere, at any time, with minimal effort

•

Access to safe (and preferably nutritious) foods for time-poor consumers

Manufacturers can use fortification as a selling point, potentially generating greater sales Consumers are at lower risks for chronic nutrient

•

Adds value and nutrition density to food, can improve bioavailability and population health implemented as public health

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Processing to reduce preparation times and make food more portable

•

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Distributors can ship products over greater distances Retailers can stock products longer Consumers can keep foods longer

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Processing for food safety (cleaning, sterilization)

Impact

•

•

A range of local and non-local foods remain available over a longer time frame

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A greater proportion of the population has access to safe food

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•

policies

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 2: Examples of food products prepared with different processing methods.

•

• •

Small goods such as salami, bologna, sausages, jerky, cured dried meat/fish products, surimi

•

Cooking, pasteurization, sterilization, high pressure processing

•

Ready to eat meal, meal components, luncheon or canned meat/fish products

Grinding, sifting, milling

•

Flour, milled rice, oat bran/grain

•

Breakfast cereal, crispy snack foods, meat analogues

SC

Rolling, steaming, puffing, drying, extrusion, frying

RI PT

Comminuting, fermentation, extrusion, drying

•

Baked goods e.g. cake, bread, ready to eat grains e.g. precooked rice, beer, wine other healthy grain beverages

•

Pasteurization, sterilization, • separation, homogenization, high pressure processing, pulse electric field

Liquid whole cream, skim and flavored cold pasteurize, pasteurized and UHT milks, cream

•

Fermentation, agitation, shearing and mixing

•

Yoghurt, cheese, butter, whipped cream

•

Evaporation, sterilization, drying, separation

•

Evaporated milk, condensed milk, milk powder, whey protein concentrate, whey, protein isolate

Cooking, steaming, sterilization, baking, fermentation, kneading

EP AC C

Fruits and vegetables

Processed food products Frozen, refrigerated in bulk or retail packs

•

Grains, cereal • & legumes with may need dairy • and other ingredients •

Dairy products

Processes Slaughtering, cutting up, boning

M AN U

Materials Beef, lamb, pork, poultry & fish

TE D

1028

•

Crushing, maceration, vacuum concentration, pasteurization, UHT, high pressure processing, pulse electric field

•

Various concentrates, juices and juice mixes

•

Fermentation, picking, drying

•

Kimchi, jams, dried and other form of pickled or preserved fruits and vegetables

•

Freezing, sterilization

•

Frozen and canned fruits and vegetables products

•

Minimally processed

•

Fresh produced

1029 47

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 1030 1031

Table 3: Global megatrends, their translation into food megatrends and opportunities for a

1032

future food supply chain

RI PT

1033 Food Megatrends

Opportunities

More food from less resources

• • • •

Recovery and value addition Extend shelf life through processing Optimize supply chain logistics Behavioural changes and changes in expectations by consumers

Planetary pushback

Foods for a healthy planet

•

Genetically modified foods for improved nutrition and efficient production Greater use of algae Greener processes Tissue engineering for meat and other products Reduce food miles Shaping consumer behaviour/acceptance Food sharing Better biodegradables supply

Foods for the Asian century

• • •

TE D

The silk highway

M AN U

• • • • • • •

•

AC C

EP

•

Forever young

SC

Global Megatrends1 More from less

Foods for beauty and health

•

• • • • • • • • • • •

Growing middle class Assured food safety for ensured market access Clean and with provenance (trusted food supplier) Rapidly growing & aging population with rising chronic diseases (Foods for health) Novel foods & ingredients with high nutritional value (Fermented dairy; novel protein sources, High protein for elderly, Foods for premium exports) Novel food production and distribution systems for megacities Foods for healthy aging - New market segments with different needs Foods for health across life course Foods & integrated programs for prevention of, and disease management Food service for aging population Pre and peri-pregnancy Protein foods Nutrient dense foods Portion innovation Weight loss, maintenance Prevention/slowing of decline (e.g. cognition, physical performance Shelf-stable healthy meals 48

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

•

Nexus of sensors, data, processes, access, production, consumption Use of big data and cloud computing to improve food supply Mobile tests for provenance, content Foods tagged and sensed, increasing use of innovative sensors (e.g. food safety) More informed and connected consumers and ethical communication channels Digital support for traditional and intensified production Home indoor hydroponic food (digitally-enabled) Online ordering of takeaways (e.g. drone delivery) Conventional retail with click and collect stores

• • • • • • • • Producing food in a globally networked environment

• • • • • •

TE D

• •

Foods that meet our expectations

AC C

EP

Great expectations

•

•

•

• •

• •

1034

1

New horizontal networks (agile and flexible companies) Networked leadership – greater sphere of influence Global food supply, global R&D environment Global health claim system Networked environment Communication and information (transparent, ethical, frequent) Creativity and agile resolution of challenges Agile and innovative R&D environment to support industry

M AN U

Porous boundaries

RI PT

Digital food and the internet of food

Texture modification (e.g. 3D printing) Pharma/functional foods Foods/supplements for cosmetic improvement

SC

Digital immersion

• • •

Personalised better and faster services that meet consumer unique needs and delivered en masse Billions impoverished still need basic food and water Personalised foods, diets and lifestyle prescriptions based on preferences and health needs Clean, natural foods Provide the experience (e.g. Flavour bursts, Enhance the appearance, 3D printing in the home – digital gastronomy, Consistent chef-like meals produced at home) Renewal of convenience, sustainability/ecoconscious, health, great food Artisan, small-batch and direct-to-consumer (different delivery systems)

Hajkowicz, 2015

1035

49

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Highlights: •

Food processing has a critical role in achieving food and nutrition security

•

Reducing food losses is an important strategy to maximize efficiency of resource use A balanced approach to both energy and nutrient content of foods is required

•

Consumer concern about food processing must be addressed for acceptance

RI PT

•

•

SC

of benefits

A holistic approach to food supply chain efficiency and sustainable diets is

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

needed

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