Art Of The Americas

Slide 2 “Art of the Ancient Americas”, often referred to as Pre-Columbian art, encapsulates artworks from the Americas before the arrival of the Europeans in the 16th century The artworks we will see today focus on the major cultures of Mesoamerica (the area extending from Northern Mexico to the Gulf of Nicoya in Costa Rica) and Peru. The people of Mesoamerica had complex political structures, stylized writing, and intricate calendar systems; all established before the year 200 B.C.E. Slide 3 The ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica ended in the early 16th century. The end date for Mesoamerica is 1519, when explorer Hernan Cortes invaded the Aztec capitol of Tenochtitlan. In Peru, European conquest is marked by Francisco Pizarro’s defeat of the Inca Empire in 1532. Slide 4 Not much is known about many of the artworks we will see today, because the objects were often stolen from their original locations and sold to far-away places without documentation. This is a great problem for archeologists and art historians, for once an object has been taken from its location without documentation, it has lost its provenience and provenance. Most of the pieces we will examine today were found in burial contexts on archaeological digs. Provenience is the exact location the object was found. Archaeologists place a grid made of string over an archaeological site so they can document exactly what part of the earth it was found in. Archaeologists use provenience to make guesses about who the object may have belonged to, and how it may have been used. Provenance is the documented history of the object, and researchers use this information to understand the journey of the object; such as where it came from, and who may have owned it. Without this information, archaeologists have a difficult time understanding the objects.

Slide 6 This gray, flat bottomed, clay bowl is attributed to the Olmec culture, the mother culture in Mesoamerica. Not much is known about the Olmec people. Researchers do not know what they called themselves, or where they came from. However, an old poem, in the ancient Mesoamerican language Nahuatl has survived through story-telling, and alludes to the ancient Olmec culture, saying: “In a certain era which no one can reckon which no one can remember where there was a government for a long time”

Questions: How has the artist chosen to depict the mouth? What has the artist highlighted, and what has he left out? Though the Olmec culture remains just as mysterious today as it did thousands of years ago, researchers have began to form hypotheses about what the Olmecs may have believed, based on iconography found in their art. Many pieces of Olmec art depict a creature that is half jaguar, half man. This creature is called a “were-jaguar”, and may come from the belief that a woman once cohabitated with a jaguar. The Olmec considered the jaguar to be the most powerful of natural beings This bowl depicts two jaguar-like heads with lips curled back, as if snarling. Look closely at the almond-shaped eye with the circular pupil, and pay particular attention to the band that extends from the eye. This band has led some researchers to believe that the jaguars on this bowl are a very early representation of the Aztec God of Spring, Xipe Totec, (She-pay Toe-tec) who is often depicted with banded eyes. Observe the head of the jaguar, just above its nose. Do you see the indent in his head, right above the corner of the eye? This indentation resembles the indentation made in soil when maize in planted. As maize was the main form of sustenance for the Olmecs, this indentation may symbolize the Maize God, or simply pay homage to the life-giving power of maize. Slide 7

This clay vessel comes from the area of Santa Cruz, in Mexico. Though female figures known as “pretty ladies” are commonly found in archaeological sites in Mexico, depictions of old women, such as this figure, are very rare. Notice that though the woman’s belly is round and swollen, you can also see her ribs and back bones. Scholars debate the meaning of this figure and offer several interpretations. Some say this figure depicts an old woman, or priestess with an illness. Others say the old woman is starving; her gaping mouth open and begging for food. Though the meaning of this figure is uncertain, it is important to note that the artistic quality of this piece is highly advanced. The artist’s combination of both bony, skeletal features contrasting with the soft, fleshy features makes this piece unique from other figures produced during this time period.

Questions: What do you think is being shown on this vessel? What type of purpose would this vessel serve? Slide 8 This bowl was found in Oaxaca, Mexico, in a site that is known as Monte Alban. This was the greatest site of the Zapotec people. Monte Alban was a very large urban center, with about 20,000 residents. The Zapotec people created the earliest form of writing

found in Mesoamerica. They used glyphs to represent days and months on their calendars, and bars and dots to represent numbers. Aside from establishing the first literary style found in Mesoamerica, the Zapotecs also established a notable artistic style. They used fine grey clays to create important objects. This gray, clay bowl is a excellent example of expressive quality and craftsmanship. Like the old woman vessel we have just looked at, the meaning of this bowl is also debated by scholars. While some believe the face on this bowl is representative of the Old Fire God worshiped by the Aztecs, while others believe the bowl depicts the face of a monkey deity. The Old Fire God usually has a toothless grin, wrinkles, and sunken eyes and cheeks. Which of these features do you see here? Bowls for everyday use were made of yellow and brown clays, and this one is made from grey clay- indicating it must have been used for ceremonial purposes. The bowl was made by hand, without the use of a potter’s wheel, which was an unknown piece of technology at the time. The bowl was most likely fired in an open pit with grass kindling at a low temperature.

Slide 9 This urn in the form of a seated figure is also from Monte Alban, but dates from a later period. The cross-legged seated figure with hands upon knees is facing forward and wearing a large headdress. The presence of these features, and the location where the object was found, attribute this urn to the Zapotec people. Urns such as this are often found in the tombs of elite society members. These urns are usually empty and are viewed as ‘companions’ to the dead. Some see them to be representative of priests or priestesses. Once again, deciphering what this figure represents has been a challenge. Some believe this urn represents the Feathered Serpent Deity, who was a god possessing both qualities of a bird and snake. Many Mesoamerican deities, such as the Feathered Serpent, were gods comprised of many different elements. This urn has many beautiful artistic details. Look at the polka-dots inside the eyes, the stylized ears, and protruding mouth. This mouth is a mouth-mask which Zapotec people wore in reference to the gods. Slide 10 This seated figure made of aragonite stone is from Teotihuacan or, “place of the gods”. Teotihuacan was the most important site in all of Mexico, for it is believed to be where the gods met to decide the fate of the world. The legend holds that the Earth was engulfed with darkness. The gods all convened at Teotihuacan to decide which one of them would sacrifice themselves to become the sun, and restore light to the world. An Aztec myth tells of this great meeting: “Even though it was night

even though it was not day even though there was no light they gathered, and the gods convened at Teotihuacan” The most humble god, the “Purulent One”, decided to sacrifice himself. Though he did become the sun, the night sky was still without stars and planets. Thus the other gods also sacrificed themselves to become these heavenly bodies and save mankind. The figure we see is austere and simple. One researcher discussed this figure saying: “For Teotihuacan, simplicity and understatement expressed the power of the state and the quality of life for its inhabitants”. Like other art forms from earlier periods, this figure was made without the use of metal tools. Most likely bone, shell, or horn chipping tools were used to create this figure. As with the other objects we have discussed today, scholars are uncertain of exactly what the figure represents. They do know that this figure was used for rituals, and possibly held burning incense. Slide 11 Questions: What features of this piece do you notice first? How big do you think this piece is? This piece happens to be less than two inches tall. This object was created by the Mayan people, an organized and powerful culture in Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala and Belize. The Maya had a two fully developed calendar systems, one 365 day sun calendar and a 260 day lunar calendar. They also had an advanced system of writing using hieroglyphs. The Maya are responsible for creating large step-pyramids. These step-pyramids were made mostly of limestone, the same stone used to make most of the buildings at Indiana University. Stepped-pyramidal structures were intended to be temple platforms. Being superb astronomers, the Maya used these pyramids to view the heavens and be closer to the gods. This small carving is a pendant made of jadeite and depicts the Mayan Sun-Eyed Lord, one of the most important of the Mayan deities. Researchers know this pendant depicts the Sun-Eyed Lord because of the crossed eyes, the large flat nose, and T-shaped teeth. Mayan people would dangle beads in front of babies to attempt to make their eyes cross, and men would file their teeth into T-shapes, to both mimic and honor the Sun-Eyed Lord. This pendant was most likely part of a necklace and worn by someone of importance. Both Mayan men and women wore jewelry made from amber, pearl, shell, and quartz- but jadeite was considered extremely precious. Jadeite’s green color associated it with vegetation, especially the maize plant, which a main food source for the Mayans, and much of Mesoamerica alike.

Slide 12 This highly decorated, polychrome vase is rich with Mayan iconography and symbolism. Vases such as this one were often found in burial sites, to assist the deceased with their journey through the Underworld. The Maya believed that the souls of almost everyone who died, even priests and rulers, had to travel a perilous journey through the Underworld. The only people who were allowed to ascend to Paradise were those who had given themselves over as a human sacrifice, which was a common practice in Mayan culture. The vase depicts an Underworld Palace. The scene taking place on this vase involves one of the most important stories found in the Popol Voh, or “book of the community”, one of the earliest Mesoamerican mythological texts- the story of the Hero Twins. The story tells of a skilled ballplayer. In Mayan and other Mesoamerican cultures, a ball game was played in which the goal was to get a small solid rubber ball, which was either bounced off the body or batted with sticks, through a hoop on the side of the court. This ballplayer was summoned to the Underworld by the gods and put to many trials, which he ultimately failed. The gods killed the ballplayer for failing, and put his skull in a tree as a trophy. One day, one of the daughters of the Underworld Lords stopped to look at the skull in the tree. The skull spit in her hand and she became pregnant with the Hero Twins. When the Hero Twins grew up, their goal was to avenge the death of their father by beating the Lords of the Underworld in a ballgame. They succeeded and the world was safe from Underworld Lords. Slide 13 This small shell is a beautiful example of Mesoamerican painting from the Mixtec (Meesh-tec) people. The Mixtecs were a culture of people who lived in settlements on hilltops. Though the Mixtec population was small at its beginnings, they conquered many other cities not through warfare, but through cooperation, and assimilation. This shell has vibrant colors of turquoise and coral and decorated with lively imagery. Shells were a luxury item in Mesoamerica, prized not only for their beauty, but for their association with water and its life-giving properties. Notice how the body of the figure is facing forward, but his feet and head are in profile. The areas of color are all outlined in black, much like an ancient Egyptian hieroglyph. The exact meaning of the figure is unsure. One side depicts a man, possibly a god, or a person imitating a god. The opposite side of the shell depicts a female, for she is wearing a flowing female cape. Slide 14 This copper fox-head would have been part of a headdress, and is attributed to the Moche culture. The Moche lived along the north coast of Peru and South America. The Moche people made very life-like art, such as this fox. The fox was an important animal to the Moche, and was associated with warriors and runners. This may be because the fox is a skilled predator, while at the same time being quick enough to not become prey

themselves. This object is extremely intricate, with each single item being attached by hand not through welding, but through a system of slots and tabs. The head is very life like, indicating that the artist probably observed a fox in its natural setting. The fox becomes even more life like when put into motion. Because the tongue of the mask is attached at the back of the head, the tongue moves freely when the objects is moved. The adornments on the ears of the fox also add to the drama, making a jingling sound when in motion. The piece would have originally been gilded with gold in entirety, making it truly stunning. Imagine how it would be to view this piece as the Moche people saw it: sitting outdoors while firelight flickers off of a golden headdress, the tongue of the fox waving, and adornments jingling as the performer moves about. Slide 15 This is a digging stick, a tool used in farming throughout Mesoamerica. The maize plant, and its growth cycle, was one of the most important aspects of Meso and South American culture. The detailed calendars of the Mesoamerican people are somewhat based on the life cycle of the maize plant. Because of its decoration, it is thought to be a ceremonial piece rather than simply a utilitarian object. Perhaps this stick was used religiously to plant the first maize seeds of the season. On the top of the digging stick, a jaguar sits atop a man who is apparently in pain, his head thrown back and mouth open. The jaguar’s spots, which are circular depressions in the wood, might have originally been inlaid with bone or shell to add to its value and beauty. Slide 16 Questions: What type of creature is on this object? What adjectives would you use to describe this piece? This whistling jar from the Lambayeque culture in Peru is made of clay. The exact animal depicted is unclear, but felines are usually the animals depicted on Peruvian ceramics. This animal has a much more dog-like face, suggesting it may be a fox or a wolf. Some researchers believe this vessel is actually depicting a sea lion, which was a prominent source of food for coastal Peruvians. Just as we call we call a sea lion a ‘lion’ when it is not, these researchers believed the Peruvian people may have called the animal a ‘sea fox’ or ‘sea dog’, thus explaining its canine-like head. Researchers have also suggested that this object would have functioned as a status symbol owned by wealthy individuals. When the jar is filled partially with liquid and then tilted, the jar emits a whistling sound through the mouth of the animal. Others suggest that this is a spiritual object, and the whistling sound produced by this vessel is a communication signal to the spirit world. Slide 17 This is a golden earspool from the Sican culture who lived on the north coast of Peru. The Sican people were very skilled at creating metal objects. There was high production of metal objects, and even non-elites were allowed to have gold pieces, but not anything as

elaborate as this piece. Golden earspools such as this would have only be owned and worn by men in the highest echelons of society. The front of the earspool has been decorated with repousse, a technique which involves hammering or pushing the back of the gold sheet. The picture shows a bird on a raft made of reeds, underneath a featherlike headdress. The shaft of the spool had incised marks which depict anthropomorphized birds, wave motifs, and boats and rafts. The mate to this earspool is in a museum in Lima, Peru. Slide 18 The end of the civilizations of the ancient Americas ends when the Europeans came to Mesoamerica, bringing with them violence, disease, and guns. The Aztecs were in power in Central Mexico during the early 16th century when the Europeans made contact. A story is told that an Aztec monarch received many signs of impending doom such as the lake in their city boiling over and flooding their plains, the appearance of mythical creatures, and strange visions by priests. Furthermore, the When the monarch was informed that the Spanish voyager Hernan Cortes was arriving, he thought that Cortes must be the ruler of a land far away. The Aztec monarch made sure he had a feast planned for Cortes, and invited him to the palace to be welcomed. When Cortes arrived, the took the monarch hostage, and began warring with the Aztecs. This was the beginning of the end for the cultures of Mesoamerica. This Aztec poem tells of the terrible defeat by the Europeans. “Broken spears lie in the roads; we have torn our hair in grief. the houses are roofless now, and their walls are red with blood. Worms are swarming in the streets and plazas, and the walls are spattered with gore. the water has turned red, as if it were dyed, and when we drink it, it has the taste of brine. we have pounded our hands in despair against adobe walls, for our inheritance, our city, is lost and dead. the shields of our warriors were its defense, but they could not save it.”