Ap Bop Studyg

ADVANCED PLACEMENT BIOLOGY Unit Objectives:

Biochemistry

At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Identify and describe the unifying themes of biology. Recognize the characteristics of the living condition. Perform safely in the laboratory setting. Recognize and apply the steps of the scientific method of problem solving. Describe an atom in terms of particle charge, atomic number, atomic weight and valence. 6. Recognize the importance of molecular bonding and distinguish among strong and weak bonds, giving biological examples of each. (polar covalent, nonpolar covalent, ionic and hydrogen bonds) 7. Describe how the unique chemical and physical properties of water influence life on earth. 8. Describe water’s dissociation and how that affects the pH of a given solution. 9. Distinguish between acidic and basic solutions and the role of buffers in aqueous solutions. 10. Identify the 6 major elements found in living things. 11. Describe the role of carbon in molecular diversity, its characteristics, and its forms of organization structures. 12. Distinguish among the three types of isomers: structural, geometric, and enantiomers. 13. Recognize the major functional groups and describe the traits they give their macromolecule. 14. Define monomer, polymer, hydrolysis, and dehydration synthesis and be able to give specific examples from each of 4 macromolecule groups. 15. Describe the chemical properties, bond types, and biological importance of macromolecules. 16. Recognize and give examples of four levels of protein conformation and relate them to denaturation. 17. Distinguish between endergonic/exergonic reactions, anabolic/catabolic pathways, kinetic/potential energy, and open/closed systems. 18. Describe the first and second laws of thermodynamics. 19. Describe an enzyme in terms of its function in chemical reactions and substrate/product relationships. 20. Define and recognize examples of the following terms related to enzymes: catalysts, active site, substrate, product, induced fit, competitive inhibition, noncompetitive inhibition, activation energy, and feedback inhibition. 21. Identify the effect on initial reaction rates produced by changes in temperature, pH enzyme concentration and substrate concentration.

1

Unit Objectives: Cells & Cell Membranes

By the conclusion of the unit, you should be able to:

1. Compare the relative size of various cells, why cells remain small and identify the tools of study in biology. 2. Identify the structure, composition, and function of cell organelles. 3. Give general characteristics of prokaryotic cells. 4. Compare and contrast the structures of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. 5. Compare and contrast the structures of plant and animal cells. 6. Identify structural characteristics unique to plant cells. 7. Compare microtubules and microfilaments according to their structures. 8. Describe the structure and function of the cell wall. 9. Identify the components of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane. 10. Describe the roles of various proteins found in and on the cell membrane. 11. Define osmosis, diffusion, active transport processes and relate the processes to the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. 12. Compare isotonic (isoosmotic), hypertonic (hyperosmotic), and hypotonic (hypoosmotic) solutions and predict the path of movement of water and solutes in given examples. 13. Describe how solute size and molar concentration affect the process of diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane. 14. Relate osmotic potential to solute concentration and water potential. 15. Measure the water potential of a solution in a controlled experiment. 16. Describe the effects of water gain or loss in plant and animal cells.

2

Unit Objectives: Cellular Respiration

At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe the role of respiration in the cell’s energy cycle. 2. Define cellular respiration, glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transport. 3. Identify the general reactants and products of glycolysis, citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. 4. Explain the role and importance of redox in metabolism. 5. Sequence the major steps of glycolysis and describe the role of enzymes in metabolism 6. Compare the end products of aerobic and anaerobic respiration and identify the types of organisms employing each. 7. Describe how the catabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates relates to cellular respiration. 8. Identify inhibitors and stimulators of the cellular respiration process. 9. Understand the role of FAD and NAD in the process of respiration. 10. Compare the efficiency of substrate-level phosphorylation to oxidative phosphorylation. 11. Identify the number of ATP molecules produced by glycolysis, Krebs, and oxidative phosphorylation. 12. Interpret data related to the effects of temperature on cellular respiration. 13. Interpret data related to the effects of germination and nongermination on cellular respiration in plants. 14. Design or describe and experiment using a respirometer to measure cellular respiration. 15. Explain why oxygen consumption can be used to measure the rate of respiration,

3

Unit Objectives: Photosynthesis At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition. Distinguish between photosynthetic and chemosynthetic autotrophs. Describe the hierarchical location and structure of the chloroplasts. Relate chloroplastic structures to their function. Write a summary equation for photosynthesis. Explain van Neil’s hypothesis and how it contributed to our current understanding of photosynthesis. 7. Explain the role of REDOX reactions in photosynthesis. 8. Describe the relationship between an action spectrum and an absorption spectrum. 9. Explain why the absorption spectrum for chlorophyll differs from the action spectrum for photosynthesis. 10. List the wavelengths of light that are most effective for photosynthesis. 11. Explain what happens when chlorophyll or accessory pigments absorb photons. 12. List the components of a photosystem and explain their function. 13. Trace electron flow through photosystems II and I. 14. Compare cyclic and noncyclic electron flow and explain the relationship between these components of the light reactions. 15. Summarize the light reactions with an equation and describe where they occur. 16. Describe important differences in chemiosmosis between oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria and photophosphorylation in chloroplasts. 17. Summarize the carbon-fixing reactions of the Calvin-Benson cycle and describe changes that occur in the carbon skeleton of the intermediates. 18. Describe the role of ATP and NADPH in the Calvin-Benson Cycle. 19. Describe whet happens to rubisco when the oxygen concentration is much higher than carbon dioxide. 20. Describe the consequences of photorespiration. 21. Describe two important photosynthetic adaptations that minimize photorespiration. 22. Describe the fate of photosynthetic products.

4

Unit Objectives: Cell Reproduction

At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Describe the process of binary fission. 2. Outline the necessary preparatory steps for mitosis including the reproduction of cell organelles such as the mitochondria and centrioles. 3. List the stages of the cell cycle and describe the sequence of events and activities of these stages. 4. List the phases of mitosis proper, describe the vents characteristic of each phase and abe able to recognize a diagram or micrograph of each stage. 5. Describe the spindle apparatus, including polar fibers, kinetochores, asters, centrioles and centromere. 6. Explain how chromosomal movement toward the poles occurs. 7. Compare cytokinesis in animals and plants. (syncytia, coenocytes) 8. Identify factors which stimulate or inhibit cell division. 9. Explain how cancerous cell division is different from normal cell activity. (contact inhibition) 10. Distinguish between sexual and asexual reproduction. 11. Compare the chromosomal contents of haploid and diploid cells. 12. Indicate where mitosis and meiosis would occur in a given organism. 13. List the phases of meiosis, describe the events that characterize each phase and be able to recognize these phases in diagrams. 14. Compare the end products of mitosis and meiosis. 15. Explain how independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization contribute to genetic variation in sexual reproduction and calculate the rate of crossing over. 16. Describe how sexual life cycles vary among protests, fungi, algae, and plants. (alternation of generations) 17. Calculate a mitotic index. 18. Describe the advantages of sexual and asexual reproduction. 19. Distinguish among chromosomes, chromatids, and tetrads. 20. Describe the process of karyotyping and how parents and doctors use karyotypes..

5

DNA and Protein Synthesis

At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: 1. List the components of a nucleotide. 2. Distinguish between a purine and a pyrimidine and the bases of DNA and RNA. 3. Describe the structure of DNA and explain what kind of chemical bond connects the nucleotides of each strand and what holds the two strands together. 4. Describe the process of DNA replication and explain the role of helicase, primase, DNA polymerase, ligase, leading and lagging strands. 5. Describe what is meant by “central dogma”. 6. Describe the works of Beadle & Tatum, Watson & Crick, Nirenburg, Griffith, Hershey & Chase, Avery, MacLeod & McCarty, as well as Chargaff. 7. Explain the processes of transcription, translation and mRNA editing. 8. Distinguish among mRNA, tRNA and rRNA in terms of location, composition, and function. 9. Describe the structure of a ribosome and explain how this structure relates to its function. 10. Define codon and list the three stop and one start codons. 11. Given a sequence of bases in DNA, predict the corresponding codons transcribed on mRNA and the corresponding anticodons of tRNA. 12. Explain how the genetic code is redundant and universal. 13. Describe the wobble effect. 14. Explain why base-pair insertions or deletions have a greater effect than base-pair substitutions in mutagenesis.

6

Unit Objectives: Molecular Biology At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Compare DNA and RNA viruses; identify the structural componenets and compare the reproductive cycles of viruses. 2. Compare three natural process of gene transfer in bacteria. 3. Define transposon and explain their role in genetic diversity. 4. Using the trp operon as an example, explain the concept of an operator and the function of the operator, repressor and corepressor. 5. Distinguish between structural and regulatory genes. 6. Describe the lac operon functions and explain how it can operate without a corepressor. 7. Distinguish between positive and negative control, and give examples of each from the lac operon 8. Define terms related to gene expression; chromatin, nucleosome, heterochromatin, DNA methylation, pseudogene, totipotent, regeneration, epigenesis, preformation, nuclear transplantation and oncogenes. 9. Describe the nature role of restriction enzymes. 10. Understand how restriction enzymes and gel electrophoresis are used to isolate DNA fragments. 11. Describe DNA cloning and how it can be used to induce bacteria to produce eukaryotic gene products. 12. Recognize some practical applications of recombinant DNA technology in biological research. 13. Understand the process of DNA sequencing and the purpose of the Human Genome Project. 14. Discuss social issues that could develop from genetic engineering. 15. Describe environmental impacts from introducing genetically engineered organisms.

7

Unit Objectives: Genetics At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4.

List several features of Mendel’s methods that contributed to his success. State four components of Mendel’s hypothesis of inheritance. Describe Mendel’s law of segregation. Use a Punnett square to predict the results of monohybrid and/or dihybrid crosses and state the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of each. 5. Distinguish between genotype and phenotype, heterozygous and homozygous, dominant and recessive traits. 6. Use the laws of probability to calculate the chances of an individual having a specific genotype or phenotype. 7. Describe the inheritance of the ABO blood system and explain why the A and B alleles are said to be codominant. 8. Define and give an example of pleiotropy. 9. Distinguish between penetrance and expressivity. 10. Given a simple family pedigree, deduce the genotypes for the family members. 11. Describe the inheritance and expression of cystic fibrosis, Tay Sachs disease, and sickle cell anemia. 12. Explain how a lethal recessive gene can be maintained in a population. 13. Explain why consanguinity increases the probability of homozygousity in the offspring. 14. Explain why lethal dominant genes are more rare than lethal recessive ones. 15. Explain how carrier recognition, fetal testing and newborn screening can be used in genetic screening and counseling. 16. Define: P1, F1, F2, Barr body, Klinefelter, Turner syndrome, Huntington’s chorea, trisomy, cru di chat, achondroplastic dwarfism, aneuploidy, phenocopy, and polyploidy. 17. Complete genetics problems related to the condition and patterns of inheritance discussed. 18. Understand the use of the Chi Square test in studying data from genetic crosses.

8

Unit Objectives: Population Genetics

At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Explain how theories of gradualism and uniformitarianism influenced Darwin’s ideas about evolution. 2. Describe Lamarck’s explanation of how adaptations evolve. 3. Explain what Darwin meant by the principle of “descent with modification”. (also the name of the boat and book) 4. Explain why variation was so important to Darwin’s theory. 5. Using the peppered moth, explain how natural selection results in evolutionary change. 6. Write the general Hardy-Weinberg theorem, use it to calculate allele and genotype frequencies, identify conditions of disequilibrium and describe the usefulness of the model. 7. Explain how genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, nonrandom mating and natural selection can cause microevolution. 8. Give the cause of genetic variation in a population. 9. Explain the concept of relative fitness and its role in adaptive evolution. 10. Describe what selection acts on and what factors contribute to the overall fitness of a genotype. 11. Be able to define: adaptive radiation, isolation, natural selection, stable gene pool, convergent evolution, divergent evolution, allopatric speciation, sympatric speciation, parapatric speciation, gradualism, and punctuated equilibrium. 12. Describe the use of the following in the study of population genetics: embryology, fossils, homology, vestigal organs, and biochemistry. 13. Distinguish between anagenesis and cladogenesis. 14. Define biological species (Mayr) and describe limitations of the concept. 15. Distinguish between prezygotic and postzygotic isolating mechanisms.

9

Unit Objectives: Simple Life Forms At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: Early Earth/Taxonomy 1. Define/describe geological time scale, Pangea, Lucy, punctuated and gradual equilibrium. 2. Describe Oparin’s hypothesis and the Miller-Urey experiments. 3. Describe the proposed sequence of development of life on earth. 4. Describe the use of the following in the study of macroevolution; embryology, fossils, homology, vestigal organs and biochemistry. 5. Distinguish between anagenesis and cladogenesis. 6. List the attributes of each of the five kingdoms. 7. Given an organism or its description, place it in the appropriated kingdom. Viruses 8. Identify the general characteristics of viruses and explain why they are not considered living. 9. Describe the lytic and lysogenic cycles of viruses. 10. Describe the general physical features of viruses. 11. Compare the development of RNA and DNA viruses. Bacteria 12. Describe the general characteristics of members of the kingdom Monera. 13. Distinguish among achaebacteria, eubacteria, and cyanobacteria on the basis of respiration and nutrition. 14. Identify the most common shapes of eubacteria and describe the differences found among gram positive and gram negative bacteria. 15. Explain the significance of bacteria in the earth’s ecosystem. Protists 16. Explain the theory of endosymbiosis. 17. Describe the characteristics of the kingdom Protista. 18. Distinguish among the plant-like (algae), animal-like (protozoan) and fungus-like (slime mold) protists. 19. Give the functions of the major physical components of the typical protists (contractile vacuole, nucleus, trichocytes, etc) Fungi 20. Describe the general characteristics of the kingdom Fungi. 21. Distinguish among saprophytic, parasitic and decomposing fungi. 22. Identify the structures of typical fungi (spores, hypha, mycelium). 23. Compare the reproductive structures of zygomycota, ascomycota, basidiomycota and chytridiomycota.

10

Unit Objectives: Invertebrates 1. List the characteristics that distinguish animals from organisms in other kingdoms. 2. Distinguish between radial/bilateral symmetry, acoelomate/coelomate/pseudocoelomate, determinate/indeterminate cleavage, schizocoelous/enterocoelous. 3. Compare the differences between protostomes and dueterostomes, citing examples. 4. From a diagram, identify the parts of a sponge (including the spongocoel, porocyte, epidermis, choanocyte, mesohyl, amoebocyte, osculum, and spicule) and describe the function of each. 5. List the characteristics of the phylum Cnidaria that distinguish it from the other animal phyla. 6. Describe the two basic body plans in Cnidaria and their role in Cnidarian life cycles. 7. List the three classes of Cnidaria and distinguish among them based on life cycle and morphological characteristics. 8. List the characteristics of the phylum Ctenophora that distinguish it from the other animal phyla. 9. List the characteristics of the phylum Platyhelminthes that distinguish it from the other animal phyla. 10. Distinguish among the four classes of Platyhelminthes and give examples of each. 11. Describe the generalized life cycle of a trematode and give an example of one fluke that parasitizes humans. 12. Describe the anatomy and generalized life cycle of a tapeworm. 13. List the characteristics that distinguish the phylum Mollusca from the other animal phyla. 14. Describe the basic body plan of a mollusk and explain how it has been modified in the Bivalvia, Cephalopoda, Gastropoda, and Polyplacophora. 15. Distinguish among the following four molluscan classes and give examples of each: a.) Bivalvia b.) gastropoda c.) cephalopoda d.) polyplacophora 16. List the characteristics that distinguish the phylum Annelida from the other animal phyla. 17. Distinguish among the classes of Annelida and give examples of each. 18. Describe the adaptive advantage of a coelom and segmentation in annelids. 19. List the characteristics of the phylum Nematoda that distinguish it from other wormlike animals. 20. List the characteristics of arthropods that distinguish them from the other animal phyla. 21. Define and distinguish between the major independent arthropod lines of evolution represented by: a.) Trilobita b.) Chelicerata c.) Crustacea d.) Uniramia 22. List the characteristics of echinoderms that distinguish them from other animal phyla. 23. Distinguish among the five classes of echinoderms and give examples of each. 24. Describe the evolutionary relationships between echinoderms and chordates.

11

Unit Objectives: Vertebrates 1. Distinguish between the two subgroups of deuterostomes. 2. Describe the four unique characteristics of chordates. 3. Distinguish between the three subphyla of the phylum Chordata and give examples of each. 4. Describe the two-stage hypothesis for the evolution of vertebrates from invertebrates. 5. Describe the specialized characteristics found in the subphylum Vertebrata and explain how each is beneficial to survival. 6. Define and distinguish between gnathostomes, tetrapods, and amniotes. 7. Define and compare the groups Myxini, Cephalaspidomorphi, ostracoderms, conodonts, and placoderms. 8. Distinguish between agnathans and fishes. 9. Describe the function and evolution of jaws. 10. Describe and distinguish between the classes Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes, noting the main traits of each group. 11. Identify and describe the main subgroups of the class Osteichthyes. 12. Describe the early evolution of amphibians. 13. Describe the common traits of amphibians and distinguish among the three orders of living amphibians. 14. Describe an amniotic egg and explain its significance in the evolution of reptiles, birds, and mammals. 15. List the distinguishing characteristics of members of the class Reptilia and explain any special adaptations to the terrestrial environment. 16. List and compare the traits of the major groups of modern reptiles. 17. List the distinguishing characteristics of members of the class Aves and explain any special adaptations for flight. 18. Summarize the evidence supporting the fact that birds evolved from reptilian ancestors. 19. Describe the main features of mammals. 20. Describe the evolution of mammals. 21. Distinguish among monotreme, marsupial, and placental mammals. 22. Describe the general characteristics of primates. Note the particular features associated with an arboreal existence. 23. Distinguish between the two suborders of primates and describe their early evolutionary relationship. 24. Distinguish between hominoid and hominid. 25. Name three of the most prominent misconceptions about human evolution. 26. Describe the evolutionary changes that occurred in the course of human evolution from about 35 million to 5 million years ago. 27. Describe the evolution of the major features of humans. 28. Describe the global dispersion patterns during the evolution of humans.

12

Unit Objectives: Digestion 1. Define tissue and explain where it falls in the hierarchy of the structural organization. 2. Describe types and functions of epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle and nervous tissue. 3. Distinguish among herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. 4. Describe the feeding mechanisms and give examples of animals that use; filterfeeding, substrate-feeding, deposit-feeding, and fluid-feeding. 5. Distinguish between intracellular and extracellular digestion. 6. Describe some distinct advantages that complete digestive tracts have over gastrovascular cavities and list the major animal phyla with alimentary tracts. 7. Describe the role of the major digestive enzymes. 8. Recognize the function of the components of the digestive system. 9. Sequence the pathway taken by a sample food through the digestive system. 10. Explain the function of bile, describe where it is produced and stored as well as its composition. 11. Describe the enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids including the reactants and products for each enzymatic reaction and whether they occur in the (a) oral cavity, (b) stomach (c) lumen of small intestine, (d) brush borders of the small intestine. 12. Give examples of vertebrates with the following digestive adaptations and explain how these adaptations are related to diet: variation in dentition, variation in length of digestive tract, and multi-chambered stomach. 13. Define basal metabolic rate and explain the relationship between BMR (basal metabolic rate) and body size. 14. List the four classes of essential nutrients. 15. List and distinguish between water soluble and fat-soluble vitamins. 16. Be familiar with the functions and descriptions of: jejunum, ilium, duodenum, villi, microvilli, cecum, appendix, bolus, and chyme. 17. Explain how hormones influence the digestive process. 18. Relate variations in dentition and lengths of the digestive system to the feeding strategies and diets of herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.

13

Unit Objectives: Circulatory, Respiratory & Immune Systems 1. Describe the function of a circulatory system and compare to a gastrovascular system. 2. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. 3. Define: hemolymph, heart cycle, systole, and diastole. 4. Compare single and double circulation. 5. Trace a drop of blood through the human circulatory system including the chambers of the heart and the sequence of vessels in a four chambered organism. 6. Describe the trends of development of the heart from two to four chambers and identify an organism with each. 7. Using heart rate and stroke volume, calculate cardiac output. 8. Identify the role of the SA and AV nodes in the regulation of the heart. 9. Define vasodilatation and vasoconstriction and the conditions under which these may occur. 10. Compare the structures of arteries, veins, and capillaries. 11. Compare velocity and blood pressure in arteries, veins and capillaries. 12. Define blood pressure in arteries, veins and capillaries. 13. Sequence the process of blood clotting. 14. Identify the components of blood and the role of each. 15. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluids and solutes across capillaries. 16. Compare HDL’s (high-density lipoproteins)and LDL’s (low-density lipoproteins). 17. Identify five respiratory surfaces employed by animals. 18. Compare processes used by air breathers and aquatic organisms. 19. Identify factors which regulate the breathing rate. 20. Define: tidal, vital, and residual lung volumes. 21. Describe the Bohr effect as related to oxygen loading and interpret an oxygen dissociation curve. 22. Explain how the lymph system helps defend against infection. 23. Identify nonspecific defense mechanisms and how they work. 24. Describe the inflammatory response. 25. Identify nonspecific defense mechanisms and how they work. 26. Compare primary and secondary immune responses. 27. Define self, non-self, antigen, antibodies, immunity vaccine, active and passive immunity. 28. Compare primary and secondary immune responses. 29. Describe the structure and functions of antigens. 30. Define: monoclonal antibodies, neutralization, agglutination, precipitation, and activation of complement system. 31. Describe disorders of the immune system.

14

Unit Objectives: Regulation At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Distinguish, by example, between osmoregulators and osmoconformers. 2. Identify the excretory structures used by protists, flatworms, segmented worms and vertebrates. 3. Relate the type of nitrogenous wastes produced to the amount of energy and water required to produce them and the organisms that use each. 4. Label a diagram of a vertebrate excretory system, including a nephron. 5. Compare the contents of plasma, urine, and filtrate. 6. Identify thermoregulatory adaptations by which heat may be retained or lost in a warm or cold-blooded organism. 7. Compare hibernation, aestivation, and diurnation. 8. Apply understanding of how heat may be produced and transferred in a living organism. 9. Locate the body’s thermostat and describe the functions/components of the heating and cooling centers. 10. Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands. 11. Distinguish among the different types of chemical messengers. 12. Describe the relationships among endocrine system components; hormones, endocrine glands, target cells, and target cell receptors. 13. List the three general classes of hormones and give examples of each. 14. Describe the mechanism of steroid hormone actions and explain the location and role of steroid hormone receptors. 15. Explain how nonsteroid hormones act via second messengers including the roles adenylate cyclase, camp, G proteins and camp dependent protein kinase. 16. Explain how to account for the specificity in target cell response to hormonal signals. 17. Compare and contrast the two general modes of hormone action. 18. Describe the location of the pituitary and explain the functions of the posterior and anterior lobes. 19. List the hormones of the following glands and describe their roles; pituitary, pancreas, thyroid, pineal, adrenal gland, thymus, parathyroid, and gonads.

15

Unit Objectives: Reproduction At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Compare gametogenesis in ovaries and testes. 2. Describe the process of fertilization including its definition, location, and polyspermy preventions. 3. Determine the fate of the following: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. 4. Sequence the events in the development of a fertilized egg from the zygote to germ layer. 5. Give examples of asexual reproduction reproduction and the organism employing this method. 6. Locate and give the functions of the structures of the male and female reproductive systems. 7. Give the functions of hormones related to the vertebrate reproductive system: progesterone, LH, FSH, GnRH, estrogen, oxytocin, prolactin, and androgen. 8. Define terms related to zygotic development; induction differentiation, animal pole, vegetal pole, primitive streak, extra-embryonic membranes, and implantation. 9. Given a diagram of the developing embryo be able to locate the coelom, somites, and notochord. 10. On a diagram of a developing embryo be able to locate the structures that give rise to the vertebrae, brain, spinal cord, and peripheral components of the nervous system. 11. Sequence the movement of sperm cells through the male and female reproductive tracts. 12. Sequence the movement of a fertilized egg through the female reproductive tract.

16

Nervous System Objectives 1. Identify the functions/role of the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems. 2. Give the functions of the cerebellum, cerebrum, hypothalamus, and spinal cord. 3. Describe the trends in the evolution of the vertebrate brain. 4. Label a diagram of a neuron and identify the events and processes that occur at each of the areas. 5. Sequence the pathway of a reflex arc from receptor to motor neuron and label a diagram of a typical arc, describing what happens at each area. 6. Distinguish among receptors/effectors and sensory/inter/motor neurons. 7. Relate membrane permeability to the movement of Na+ and K+ ions. 8. Compare hyperpolarization of a neuron to depolarization. 9. Identify the types of neurotransmitters. 10. Label a diagram of a synaptic region and tell where neurontransmitters are released, direction of impulse travel, ion flow, and fusion of the neurotransmitter occur. 11. Identify the types of receptors and the structures found in the vision and hearing receptors. 12. Discuss the processes and structures involved in the contracting of a muscle including; a) describe the relationship between muscle fiber and sarcomere, b) prepare a diagram showing the location of the thin and thick filaments, I and A bands, Z lines and H zones c) specifically describe the role of ATP/ADP and Ca++ in the contraction process. 13. Define ethology. 14. Distinguish between ultimate causes and proximate causes. 15. Compare behaviors related to each of the following: fixed action patterns, imprinting , conditioning, learning, insight, mating, habituation and social behaviors. 16. Observe domestic animals and classify the observed behavior as innate or learned. 17. Measure the effects of environmental variables on habitat selection in a controlled environment and examine the distribution of organisms in a resource gradient.

17

Unit Objectives: Plant Physiology & Reproduction 1. List the characteristics of the members of the kingdom Plantae. 2. Distinguish between vascular and nonvascular plant characteristics. (angiosperms, gymnosperms, Cycads, ginkgo, mosses and ferns) 3. Give the function of antheridium and archegonia in alternation of generations. 4. Recognize the sporophyte and gametophyte stages of mosses, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. 5. Identify seed plant adaptations for life on land. 6. Compare monocot and dicot seed anatomy. 7. Label a diagram of a leaf cross section and give the functions of the parts therein and their sequence in the anatomical heirarchy. 8. Label a diagram of a stoma and relate the parts to the movement of gases into and out of plants. 9. Relate stoma position to photosynthesis. 10. Recognize the function of vascular tissues and identify the cells found in both types of vascular tissues. 11. Identify the characteristics of pith, bark, cambium, spring wood, summer wood, heart wood and sap wood. 12. Describe how vascular fluid moves throughout a plant using the transpiration-cohesion and mass flow theories; apply these theories to hypothetical situations. 13. Recognize the functions of roots. 14. Label a diagram of a cross sections of a monocot and dicot stem. 15. Relate leaf modifications to water conservation. 16. Apply your understanding of the relationship between photosynthesis and transpiration given data as to the rates of these events in a particular setting. 17. Identify the nutrients required for plant growth, particularly noting the three most important. 18. Compare soil particles based on water holding capacity and size of each. 19. Identify the most usable forms of nitrogen for plant growth. 20. Describe the role of nitrogenase to nitrogen fixation, such as that carried out by Rhizobium in the nodules of legumes. 21. Recognize by example, the types of nutritional adaptations observed in the plant kingdom. 22. Recall the general features of photosynthesis and respiration and relate the occurrence of these processes to the anatomical features of the plant. 23. Distinguish among perfect, imperfect, complete and incomplete flowers. 24. Compare reproduction in monoecious and dieocious plants. 25. Identify the types of tissues produced by lateral meristems and vascular cambiums. 26. Label a diagram of germinating monocot and/or dicot seeds. 27. Describe the process of and relation between fertilization and pollination in plants. 28. Identify the parts of a typical complete flower and give the functions. 29. Describe the methods/agents of pollination and the physiological adaptations needed for each. 30. Define apomixis and give its evolutionary advantage 31. Describe the various methods of vegetative/asexual propagation and the advantages/disadvantages of each. 32. Give the functions of the following hormones: cytokinins, gibberillic acid, abscisic acid, ethylene, auxin and florigen. 33. Compare the various types of tropisms in relation to their stimuli. 34. Define photoperiodism, long day, day neutral, and short day in reference to flowering plants. 18

Unit Objectives: Ecology 1. Explain the importance of temperature, water, light, soil, and wind to living organisms. 2. Compare abiotic and biotic factors. 3. Describe the characteristics of the major biomes: tropical rain forest, savanna, desert, chaparral, temperate grassland, temperate forest, taiga, and tundra. 4. Define population, community, biome, ecosystem, biosphere, succession, permafrost, and aphotic 5. Describe conditions which may result in clumped dispersion, random dispersion, and uniform dispersion of populations. 6. Explain how age structure, generation time, and sex structure of populations can effect population growth. 7. Describe the characteristics of populations exhibiting Type I, II, and III survivorship curves. 8. Explain how carrying capacity of the environment affects the intrinsic rate of increase of a population. 9. Explain how density dependent factors affect population growth and how density dependent and independent factors can work together to regulate population growth. 10. Explain the relationship between species richness, equability, and diversity. 11. Describe the four properties of a community. 12. Describe the competitive exclusion principle. 13. Compare an organism’s fundamental and realized niches. 14. Define predation and identify methods used by plants and animals to reduce predation. 15. Identify the major characteristics of a life history and explain how each affects the 1) number of offspring by an individual and 2) population. 16. Explain the nitrogen, phosphorous, carbon and water cycles. 17. List and describe four consumer levels of an ecosystem. 18. Distinguish between energy pyramids and biomass pyramids. 19. Define: biological magnification, denitrification, ammonification, nitrification, detritivores, consumers and producers. 20. Compare Net Primary Productivity (NPP) and Gross Primary Productivity (GPP). 21. Describe the physiological importance of carbon and oxygen in an ecosystem. 22. Understand the physical and biological factors that affect the solubility of dissolved gases in aquatic ecosystems. 23. Describe a technique for measuring dissolved oxygen. 24. Define primary productivity. 25. Describe the relationship between dissolved oxygen and the processes of photosynthesis and respiration as they affect primary productivity in an ecosystem. 26. Understand the effect of light and nutrients on photosynthesis.

19