Allusion.docx

Allusion Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text. Allusion Examples in Everyday Speech     

“Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her.” – “Romeo” is a reference to Shakespeare’s Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in “Romeo and Juliet”. The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora’s box of crimes. – This is an allusion to one of Greek Mythology’s origin myth, “Pandora’s box”. “This place is like a Garden of Eden.” – This is a biblical allusion to the “garden of God” in the Book of Genesis. “Hey! Guess who the new Newton of our school is?” – “Newton”, means a genius student, alludes to a famous scientist Isaac Newton. “Stop acting like my ex-husband please.” – Apart from scholarly allusions we refer to common people and places in our speech.

Examples of Allusion in Literature We find a number of allusions in Keats’s “Ode to the Grecian Urn”. For example: “Sylvan historian, who canst thus express A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme: What leaf-fringed legend haunts about thy shape Of deities or mortals, or of both, In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?” “Sylvan” is a goat-like-man deity of Greek mythology. “Tempe” alludes to the “Vale of Tempe” in Greece, a place (from Greek mythology) frequently visited by Apollo and other gods. Likewise, “the dales of Arcady” refers to the home of “Pan”, the god of rustic music. Function of Allusion By and large, the use of allusions enables writers or poets to simplify complex ideas and emotions. The readers comprehend the complex ideas by comparing the emotions of the writer or poet to the references given by them. Furthermore, the references

to Greek Mythology give a dreamlike and magical touch to the works of art. Similarly, biblical allusions appeal to the readers with religious backgrounds. Allegory Allegory Definition Allegory is a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and principles are described in terms of characters, figures, and events. It can be employed in prose and poetry to tell a story, with a purpose of teaching or explaining an idea or a principle. The objective of its use is to teach some kind of a moral lesson. Difference Between Allegory and Symbolism Although an allegory uses symbols, it is different from symbolism. An allegory is a complete narrative that involves characters and events that stand for an abstract idea or event. A symbol, on the other hand, is an object that stands for another object, giving it a particular meaning. Unlike allegory, symbolism does not tell a story. For example, Plato, in his Allegory of Cave, tells a story of how some people are ignorant, while at the same time other people “see the light.” Plato’s allegory stands for an idea and does not tell an actual story. Examples of Allegory in Everyday Life Allegory is an archaic term, which is used specifically in literary works. It is difficult to spot its occurrence in everyday life, although recently we do find examples of allegory in political debates. The declaration of former U.S. President George W. Bush was allegorical when he used the term “Axis of Evil” in referring to three countries considered a danger to the world. He later used the term “allies” for those countries that would wage war against the “Axis.” Examples of Allegory in Literature Example #1: Animal Farm (By George Orwell) Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is an allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW I. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society. One of the cardinal rules on the farm is this: “All animals are equal but a few are more equal than others.”

The animals on the farm represent different sections of Russian society after the revolution. For instance, the pigs represent those who came to power following the revolution; “Mr. Jones,” the owner of the farm, represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; while “Boxer” the horse, represents the laborer class. The use of allegory in the novel allows Orwell to make his position clear about the Russian Revolution and expose its evils.

Function of Allegory Writers use allegory to add different layers of meanings to their works. Allegory makes their stories and characters multidimensional, so that they stand for something larger in meaning than what they literally stand for. Allegory allows writers to put forward their moral and political points of view. A careful study of an allegorical piece of writing can give us an insight into its writer’s mind, how he views the world, and how he wishes the world to be. Characterization Characterization Definition Characterization is a literary device that is used step-by-step in literature to highlight and explain the details about a character in a story. It is in the initial stage in which the writer introduces the character with noticeable emergence. After introducing the character, the writer often talks about his behavior; then, as the story progresses, the thought-processes of the character. The next stage involves the character expressing his opinions and ideas, and getting into conversations with the rest of the characters. The final part shows how others in the story respond to the character’s personality. Characterization as a literary tool was coined in the mid 15th century. Aristotle in his Poetics argued that “tragedy is a representation, not of men, but of action and life.” Thus the assertion of the dominance of plot over characters, termed “plotdriven narrative,” is unmistakable. This point of view was later abandoned by many because, in the 19th century, the dominance of character over plot became clear through petty bourgeois novels. Types of Characterization An author can use two approaches to deliver information about a character and build an image of it. These two types of characterization include:

1. Direct or explicit characterization This kind of characterization takes a direct approach towards building the character. It uses another character, narrator, or the protagonist himself to tell the readers or audience about the subject. 2. Indirect or implicit characterization This is a more subtle way of introducing the character to the audience. The audience has to deduce for themselves the characteristics of the character by observing his/her thought process, behavior, speech, way of talking, appearance, and manner of communication with other characters, as well as by discerning the response of other characters.

Examples of Characterization in Literature Example #1: The Great Gatsby (By F. Scott Fitzgerald) There are many examples of characterization in literature. The Great Gatsby, is probably the best. In this particular book, the main idea revolves around the social status of each character. The major character of the book, Mr. Gatsby, is perceptibly rich, but he does not belong to the upper stratum of society. This means that he cannot have Daisy. Tom is essentially defined by his wealth and the abusive nature that he portrays every now and then, while Daisy is explained by Gatsby as having a voice “full of money.” Another technique to highlight the qualities of a character is to put them in certain areas that are symbolic of a social status. In the novel, Gatsby resides in the West Egg, which is considered less trendy than East Egg, where Daisy lives. This difference points out the gap between Jay’s and Daisy’s social statuses. Moreover, you might also notice that Tom, Jordan, and Daisy live in East Egg while Gatsby and Nick reside in West Egg, which again highlights the difference in their financial background. This division is reinforced at the end of the novel when Nick supports Gatsby against the rest of the folk. Occupations have also been used very tactfully in the novel to highlight characteristics of certain protagonists. The prime example is Gatsby who, despite being so rich, is known by his profession: bootlegging. He had an illegal job that earned him a fortune, but failed to get him into the upper class of New York society. In contrast, Nick has a clean and fair job of a “bond man” that defines his character. The poor guy Wilson, who fixes rich people’s cars, befriends his wife; and then there is Jordon, who is presented as a dishonest golf pro.

Function of Characterization Characterization is an essential component in writing good literature. Modern fiction, in particular, has taken great advantage of this literary device. Understanding the role of characterization in storytelling is very important for any writer. To put it briefly, it helps us make sense of the behavior of any character in a story by helping us understand their thought processes. A good use of characterization always leads the readers or audience to relate better to the events taking place in the story. Dialogues play a very important role in developing a character, because they give us an opportunity to examine the motivations and actions of the characters more deeply. Climax Climax Definition Climax, a Greek term meaning “ladder,” is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point. Climax is a structural part of a plot, and is at times referred to as a “crisis.” It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at which the rising action turns around into a falling action. Thus, a climax is the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its peak, then calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion). In a five-act play, the climax is close to the conclusion of act 3. Later in the 19th century, five-act plays were replaced by threeact plays, and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end of the play. Examples of Climax in Literature Let us analyze a few climax examples in literature: Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare) In William Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet, the story reaches its climax in Act 3. In the first scene of the act, Romeo challenges Tybalt to a duel after he (Tybalt) killed Mercutio: “And fire-eyed fury be my conduct now! Now, Tybalt, take the ‘villain’ back again That late thou gavest me; for Mercutio’s soul Is but a little way above our heads …” As soon as he killed Tybalt, Romeo says: “O! I am Fortune’s Fool!”

He realizes that he has killed his wife’s cousin. This juncture in the play is a climax, as the audiencewonders how Romeo would get out of this terrible situation. Similarly, it qualifies as a climax because, after this act, all the prior conflicts start to be resolved, and mysteries unfold themselves, thus moving the story toward its logical conclusion during the coming scenes.

Function of Climax A climax, when used as a plot device, helps readers understand the significance of the previously rising action to the point in the plot where the conflict reaches its peak. The climax of the story makes readers mentally prepared for the resolution of the conflict. Hence, climax is important to the plot structure of a story. Moreover, climax is used as a stylistic device or a figure of speech to render balance and brevity to speech or writing. Being pemployed, it qualifies itself as a powerful tool that can instantly capture the undivided attention of listeners and readers alike. Hence, its importance cannot be underestimated. Symbolism Definition of Symbolism Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense. Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object representing another, to give an entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more significant. Sometimes, however, an action, an event or a word spoken by someone may have a symbolic value. For instance, “smile” is a symbol of friendship. Similarly, the action of someone smiling at you may stand as a symbol of the feeling of affection which that person has for you. Symbols do shift their meanings depending on the context they are used in. “A chain,” for example, may stand for “union” as well as “imprisonment”. Thus, symbolic meaning of an object or an action is understood by when, where, and how it is used. It also depends on who reads the work. Common Examples of Symbolism in Everyday Life In our daily life, we can easily identify objects that can be taken as examples of symbolism, such as the following: 

The dove is a symbol of peace.

   

A red rose, or the color red, stands for love or romance. Black is a symbol that represents evil or death. A ladder may stand as a symbol for a connection between heaven and earth. A broken mirror may symbolize separation.

Short Examples of Symbolism in Sentences 1. Ching Chua gave his wife a red rose. (In Chinese culture, the color red symbolizes property and happiness.) 2. David stopped his car at the red signal. (In other cultures, the color red is symbol of blood, passion, and danger.) 3. Rebels raised a white flag to negotiate. (During war, the color white symbolizes making peace with the enemy. Otherwise, it represents purity and life.) 4. The Red Cross is working around the world. (The symbol of the cross represents Christianity, and the red cross in particular represents aid in times of need.) 5. The Muslim forces raised their flag with a crescent on it. (The crescent moon represents Islam.) 6. He turned green when found a wallet. (Green color is often associated with greed, jealousy, and monetary affairs.) 7. They dressed in black to the funeral of their friend. (The color black is associated with death.) 8. The yellow boat turned into the channel, to make the tourists happy. The color yellow color is the symbol of deterioration and infidelity, as well as the symbol of freshness and happiness.) 9. He was disappointed when the mirror broke. (Broken mirror is an symbol of separation.) 10. He gave a red rose to his wife on Valentine Day. (Red rose is a symbol for love.) 11. He, after a long time, saw a silver lining in the shape of the arrival of his brother. (Silver edge/lining of clouds symbolize hope and optimism.) 12. You have a sixth sense like an owl. (Owl symbolizes wisdom.) 13. You work like an ox. (The ox symbolizes hard work and stamina.) 14. When he saw a bat in dream, he grew white with fear. (Bats are the symbol of death.) Examples of Symbolism in Literature To develop symbolism in his work, a writer utilizes other figures of speech, like metaphors, similes, and allegory, as tools. Some symbolism examples in literature are listed below with brief analysis:

Example #1: As you Like It (By William Shakespeare) We find symbolic value in Shakespeare’s famous monologue in his play As you Like It: “All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players; they have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts,” These lines are symbolic of the fact that men and women, in the course of their lives, perform different roles. “A stage” here symbolizes the world, and “players” is a symbol for human beings. Example #2: Ah Sunflower (By William Blake) William Blake goes symbolic in his poem Ah Sunflower. He says: “Ah Sunflower, weary of time, Who countest the steps of the sun; Seeking after that sweet golden clime Where the traveler’s journey is done;” Blake uses a sunflower as a symbol for human beings, and “the sun” symbolizes life. Therefore, these lines symbolically refer to their life cycle and their yearning for a never-ending life. Example #3: Wuthering Heights (By Emily Bronte) Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights presents almost every character, house, surroundings, and events in a symbolic perspective. The word “Wuthering,” which means “stormy,” represents the wild nature of inhabitants. The following lines allow us to look into the symbolic nature of two characters: “My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods. Time will change it; I’m well aware, as winter changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath a source of little visible delight, but necessary.” The phrase “foliage of leaves” for is a symbol for Linton’s fertile and civilized nature. On the contrary, Heathcliff is likened to an “eternal rock,” which symbolizes his crude and unbendable nature. Example #4: Wild Asters (By Sara Teasdale)

Sara Teasdale in her poem Wild Asters develops a number of striking symbols: “In the spring, I asked the daisies If his words were true, And the clever, clear-eyed daisies Always knew. Now the fields are brown and barren, Bitter autumn blows, And of all the stupid asters Not one knows.” In the above lines, “spring” and “daisies” are symbols of youth. “Brown and barren” are symbols of transition from youth to old age. Moreover, “Bitter autumn” symbolizes death. Example #5: The Rain (By William H. Davies) “I hear leaves drinking rain; I hear rich leaves on top Giving the poor beneath Drop after drop; Tis a sweet noise to hear These green leaves drinking near.” In this beautiful poem, William Davies who has used the symbol of rain to show the different classes of society. He does this by describing the way the upper leaves benefit from the rain first, and then hand down the rest to the lower leaves. The same way, rich people pass on the leftover benefits to the poor people. Example #6: My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold (By William Wordsworth) “My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky: So was it when my life began; So is it now I am a man; So be it when I shall grow old, …” In this poem, the poet uses rainbow as a symbol of hope and general wellbeing throughout his life. Example #7: XXIII, Crossing Alone the Nighted Ferry (By A. E. Housman)

“Crossing alone the nighted ferry With the one coin for fee, Whom, on the wharf of Lethe waiting, Count you to find? Not me.” The poet has used the symbol of a river to represent life and the past memories associated with it. Function of Symbolism Symbolism gives a writer freedom to add double levels of meanings to his work: a literal one that is self-evident, and the symbolic one whose meaning is far more profound than the literal. Symbolism, therefore, gives universality to the characters and the themes of a piece of literature. Symbolism in literature evokes interest in readers as they find an opportunity to get an insight into the writer’s mind on how he views the world, and how he thinks of common objects and actions, having broader implications. Foreshadowing Definition of Foreshadowing Foreshadowing is a literary device in which a writer gives an advance hint of what is to come later in the story. Foreshadowing often appears at the beginning of a story, or a chapter, and helps the reader develop expectations about the coming events in a story. There are various ways to create foreshadowing. A writer may use character dialogues to hint at what may occur in the future. In addition, any event or action in the story may throw a hint to the readers about future events or actions. Even a title of a work or a chapter title can act as a clue that suggests what is going to happen. Foreshadowing in fictioncreates an atmosphere of suspense in a story, so that the readers are interested to know more. Short Examples of Foreshadowing 1. The final graveyard flower is blooming, and its smell drifts through their house, speaking gently the names of their dead. (Foreshadows death) 2. The evening was still. Suddenly, a cool breeze started blowing and made a windy night. (Foreshadows thunderstorm)

3. The most awful thing happened on a stormy evening, The battle between good and evil started. (Foreshadows danger) 4. Mary pulled back the curtains and saw some magpies sitting on the wall. (Foreshadows gossip) 5. They thought there would not be more bodies; however, they could not believe the thought. (Foreshadows murder) 6. An old man opens his drawer to find a magnifying glass, and sees a revolver. (Foreshadows warning) 7. In the middle of the night, the father hears the back door opening. He rushes to check on his kids, but a masked intruder is blocking the way with a knife. (Foreshadows threat) 8. Rainbow sparks, With shining lights. (Foreshadows optimism) 9. Inhale fresh air, exhale bad breath. (Foreshadows new ideas) 10. From the window, the gusts look so furious, the roofs of high buildings are stripped off, and the trees are torn up in the city. (Foreshadows someone’s angst) 11. Michael sees his own face under Donavan’s mask. (Foreshadows Donavan is his father) 12. They have made up their minds to remove an evil eye forever. (Foreshadows harm to an evil character) 13. I observed devices, The symbols in the books To indicate the written future. (Foreshadows writer) 14. As the twilight colors blush The eyes of the night arouse. (Foreshadows night) 15. The same old thinking and the same old results. (Foreshadows change) Foreshadowing Examples in Literature Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By Robert Francis) Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet is rich with foreshadowing examples, one of which is the following lines from Act 2, Scene 2:

“Life were better ended by their hate, Than death prorogued, wanting of thy love” In the balcony scene, Juliet is concerned about Romeo’s safety as she fears her kinsmen may catch him. Romeo says, in the above lines, that he would rather have her love and die sooner, than not obtain her love and die later. Eventually, he gets her love and dies for her love, too. Example #2: Great Expectations (By Charles Dickens) Charles Dickens in Great Expectations uses a description of weather in Chapter 39 to foreshadow the momentous changes in the life of a character named Pip: “Stormy and wet, stormy and wet; and mud, mud, mud, deep in all the streets. Day after day, a vast heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still, as if in the East there were an Eternity of cloud and wind. So furious had been the gusts, that high buildings in town had had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn up, and sails of windmills carried away; and gloomy accounts had come in from the coast, of shipwreck and death. Violent blasts of rain had accompanied these rages of wind, and the day just closed as I sat down to read had been the worst of all.” The above lines are Pip’s observation on the weather before Magwitch’s arrival. It is a foreshadowing as well as a representation of Pip’s inner chaos. Just as the angry winds leave a trail of destruction in London, Magwitch’s disclosure opens a path of destruction in Pip’s life. Example #3: Da Vinci Code (By Dan Brown) Examples of foreshadowing are also found in mystery and detective stories. The kind of foreshadowing usually found in mystery or detective novels is referred to as “RedHerring” – this is a misleading clue that distracts readers by giving them wrong hints about future events. For example, the character of Bishop Aringarosa in Da Vinci Code, by Dan Brown, is shown to act in such a suspicious way that the readers are bound to suspect him to be the mastermind of the whole conspiracy in the church. His mysterious actions seemingly foreshadow the exposure of his crime in a later part of the narrative, but it is later revealed that he was innocent and not involved in any secret action. Characters like Bishop Aringarosa contribute to the mystery and suspense of the novel. Example #4: Of Mice and Men (By John Steinbeck)

In John Steinbeck’s novel Of Mice and Men, George killing Candy’s dog foreshadows George killing Lennie, because Lennie is identical to the dog. Even the nature of the death of the dog was the same as Lennie’s, as both were shot in the back of the head. He chooses to kill Lennie himself in order to save him from being killed by a stranger. Example #5: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (By S. T. Coleridge) “Her lips were red, her looks were free … Who thicks man’s blood with cold.” This part is the climax of ship’s misfortune, depicted in a supernatural way. The arrival of a ghostly ship with ghosts as “Life-in-Death” turns the mariners lose hope and make them scared to death. This indirectly foreshadows the death of the entire crew and builds anticipation for the readers what is about to happen next. Example #6: The Highwayman (By Alfred Noyes) “The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees… Riding—riding— The highwayman came riding, up to the old inn-door.” The above lines are entirely filled with melancholic tone and foreshadowing. The very first line calls wind “a torrent of darkness,” where darkness is a foreshadowing danger. The depiction of night and weather as ‘darkness’ foretells the coming of a dark tale. Example #7: The Tide Rises, The Tide Falls (By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) “The tide rises, the tide falls, The twilight darkens, the curlew call … And the tide rises, the tide falls.” The title of the poem foreshadows the entire poem, how nature and life start and end. It is about the tides, their motions, and the circle of life. The darkness and ups and downs of tides foretell that the travelers would never return. Example #8: David (By Earle Birney) “Away from the wind, and landed in gentian and saxifrage Spilled on the moss … Cliff and splashed unseen into mist in the shadows.”

This excerpt gives descriptions of “darkening firs,” “sudden whirring of water,” and “splashed unseen,” foretelling a pending danger and some disaster about to happen. Function of Foreshadowing Generally, the function of foreshadowing is to build anticipation in the minds of readers about what might happen next, thus adding dramatic tension to a story. It is deliberately employed to create suspense in mystery novels, usually by giving false clues – or red herrings – to distract readers. Moreover, foreshadowing can make extraordinary and bizarre events appear credible, as the events are predicted beforehand so that readers are mentally prepared for them. Tone Definition of Tone Tone, in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. Every written piece comprises a central theme or subject matter. The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is the tone. The tone can be formal, informal, serious, comic, sarcastic, sad, or cheerful, or it may be any other existing attitude. Consider the following examples of tone:  

“I want to ask the authorities what is the big deal? Why do they not control the epidemic? It is eating up lives like a monster.” “I want to draw the attention of the appropriate authorities toward damage caused by the epidemic. If steps are not taken to curb it, it will further injure our community.”

The theme of both tone examples is the same. The only way we can differentiate between them is their separate tone. The tone in the first example is casual or informal while, it is more formal in the second. Tone Examples in Common Speech We adopt a variety of tones in our day-to-day speech. This intonation of our speech determines what message we desire to convey. Read a few examples below: Example #1 Father: “We are going on a vacation.” Son: “That’s great!!!”

– The tone of son’s response is very cheerful. Example #2 Father: “We can’t go on vacation this summer.” Son: “Yeah, great! That’s what I expected.” – The son’s tone is sarcastic. Example #3 “Yeah, your grades on this exam will be as good as the previous exams.” – The tone is pessimistic in this example. Example #4 “Can someone tell me what the hell is going on here?” – This has an aggressive tone. Short Examples of Tone 1. Though the starry sky was beautiful, his mood was so melancholic that he took no interest in it. 2. The old man took the handful of dust from his farm and sniffed it with great pleasure. 3. The sweet smell of spring roses made overjoyed him. 4. The old man’s face looked so peaceful after death that he seemed in deep sleep. 5. The spectacle of sunset was so astounding that people stood watching breathlessly. 6. The scorching heat of the desert sun burned his skin black, and he could see death hovering over his head. 7. The singing of birds was deemed a messenger for approaching spring. 8. His stinking breath kept listeners at a considerable distance from him. 9. The muffled church bell sounded as thought it came from an unfathomably deep well. 10. The kind touch of her mother’s hand comforted her in her pain. 11. He was on his way to home when he saw a boy of ten, who moved his heart as he stood weeping. 12. The negotiations between the two states came to a halt after terms of reference could not be agreed upon.

13. The harsh gusts of cruel cold wind battered her body. 14. He went into the restaurant and ordered a hot coffee, the cozy atmosphere inside reminded him of the past. Examples of Tone in Literature Tone has a significant place in literature as it manifests writers’ attitudes toward different subjects. Example #1: Catcher in the Rye (By J. D. Salinger) Holden Caulfield, in J. D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye, unfolds his personality through the tone he adopts throughout the novel. Let us have a look at some of his remarks:    

“All morons hate it when you call them a moron.” “If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a damn if she’s late? Nobody.” “Goddamn money. It always ends up making you blue as hell.” “Catholics are always trying to find out if you’re Catholic.”

Holden’s tone is bitterly sarcastic as he criticizes the nature of things in real life. His character may reveal the attitude of the writer towards life, as it is common for writers to use their characters as their mouthpieces. Example #2: The School (By Donald Barthelme) Observe the tone of a short story, The School, by Donald Barthelme: “And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don’t know why they died, they just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the nursery wasn’t the best. We complained about it. So we’ve got thirty kids there, each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we’ve got these thirty dead trees. All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing.” The use of the adjectives “dead” and “depressing” sets a gloomy tone in the passage. As trees signify life here, their unexpected “death” from an unknown cause gives the above passage an unhappy and pessimistic tone. Example #3: The Road Not Taken (By Robert Frost) Robert Frost, in the last stanza of his poem The Road Not Taken, gives us an insight into the effect of tone:

“I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference.” Frost tells us about his past with a “sigh,” this gives the above lines an unhappy tone. This tone leads us into thinking that the speaker in the poem had to make a difficult choice. Example #4: A River Runs Through It (By Norman Maclean) “This was the last fish we were ever to see Paul catch. My father and I talked about this moment several times later, and whatever our other feelings, we always felt it fitting that, when we saw him catch his last fish, we never saw the fish but only the artistry of the fisherman.” The extract contains tones of loss and nostalgia; however, the characters look quite satisfied with the way things are moving forward. Example #5: The Tell-Tale Heart (By Edgar Allen Poe) “It was A LOW, DULL, QUICK SOUND – MUCH SUCH A SOUND AS A WATCH MAKES WHEN ENVELOPED IN COTTON. I gasped for breath, and yet the officers heard it not. I talked more quickly, more vehemently but the noise steadily increased. I arose and argued about trifles, in a high key and with violent gesticulations; but the noise steadily increased. Why WOULD they not be gone? I paced the floor to and fro with heavy strides, as if excited to fury by the observations of the men, but the noise steadily increased. O God! What COULD I do?” This short story by Poe contains the tones of insanity, nervousness, and guilt. The character suffers from all these feelings, which the writer has translated into a story. Example #6: A Clean, Well-Lighted Place (By Ernest Hemingway) “It was very late and everyone had left the cafe except an old man who sat in the shadow the leaves of the tree made against the electric light. In the day time the street was dusty, but at night the dew settled the dust and the old man liked to sit late because he was deaf and now at night it was quiet and he felt the difference.” In this short excerpt, the culminating tone of the writer is that of peace and serenity, though he talks of the day time in a bit different tone.

Function of Tone Tone, in a piece of literature, decides how the readers read a literary piece, and how they should feel while they are reading it. It stimulates the readers to read a piece of literature as a serious, comical, spectacular, or distressing manner. In addition, tone lends shape and life to a piece of literature because it creates a mood. Moreover, tone bestows voice to characters, and throws light on the personalities and dispositions of characters that readers understand better. Conflict Conflict Definition In literature, conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle between two opposing forces, usually a protagonist and an antagonist. Internal and External Conflicts Careful examination of some conflict examples will help us realize that conflicts may be internal or external. An internal or psychological conflict arises as soon as a character experiences two opposite emotions or desires – usually virtue and vice, or good and evil – inside him. This disagreement causes the character to suffer mental agony. Internal conflict develops a unique tension in a storyline, marked by a lack of action. External conflict, on the other hand, is marked by a characteristic involvement of an action wherein a character finds himself in struggle with those outside forces that hamper his progress. The most common type of external conflict is where a protagonist fights back against the antagonist’s tactics that impede his or her advancement. Examples of Conflict in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Hamlet’s internal conflict is the main conflict in William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet.” This internal conflict decides his tragic downfall. He reveals his state of mind in the following lines from Act 3, Scene 1 of the play: “To be, or not to be – that is the question: Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. To die, to sleep…”

The conflict here is that Hamlet wants to kill his father’s murderer, Claudius, but he also looks for proof to justify his action. This ultimately ruins his life, and the lives of his loved ones. Due to his internal conflict, Hamlet spoils his relationship with his mother, and sends Ophelia (Hamlet’s love interest) into such a state of despair that she commits suicide. Hamlet’s internal conflict, which is regarded as indecisiveness, almost got everyone killed at the end of the play. The resolution to the conflict came when he killed Claudius by assuming fake madness so that he would not be asked for any justification. In the same play, we find Hamlet engaged in an external conflict with his uncle Claudius. Example #2: Doctor Faustus (By Christopher Marlowe) Another example of an internal conflict is found in the character of Doctor Faustus in Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus. Faustus has an ambitious nature. In spite of being a respected scholar, he sold his soul to Lucifer by signing a contract with his blood, in order to achieve ultimate power and limitless pleasure in this world. He learns the art of black magic, and defies Christianity. After the aforementioned action, we see Faustus suffering from an internal conflict where he thinks honestly about repenting, acting upon the advice of “the good angel,” but “the bad angel” or the evil inside him distracts him by saying it is all too late. In conclusion, the conflict is resolved when devils take his soul away to Hell, and he suffers eternal damnation because of his over-ambition. Example #3: The Lord of the Flies Farm (By William Golding) The most straightforward type of external conflict is when a character in a story struggles against another character physically. In William Golding’s novel The Lord of the Flies, for example, Ralph (the leader of the “good guys”) steadily comes into conflict with Jack – a bully who later forms a “tribe” of hunters. Jack and his tribe give in to their savage instinct, and make attempts to hunt or kill the civilized batch of boys led by Ralph. Example #4: To Kill a Mockingbird (By Harper Lee) Another kind of external conflict sets a character against the evil that dominates a society. In this type of conflict, a character may confront a dominant group with opposing priorities. For instance, in Harper Lee’s novel To Kill a Mockingbird, an honest lawyer, Atticus Finch, goes up against the racist society in which he lives. Atticus has the courage to defend a black man, Tom Robinson, who has been falsely

accused of a rape. Though Atticus has the support of a few like-minded people, most of the townspeople express their disapproval of his defense of a black man. Function of Conflict Both internal and external conflicts are essential elements of a storyline. It is essential for a writer to introduce and develop conflict, whether internal, external, or both, in his storyline in order to achieve the story’s goal. Resolution of the conflict entertains the readers. Exposition Definition of Exposition Exposition is a literary device used to introduce background information about events, settings, characters, or other elements of a work to the audience or readers. The word comes from the Latin language, and its literal meaning is “a showing forth.” Exposition is crucial to any story, for without it nothing makes sense. There are many ways to present an exposition, including monologues, dialogues, inuniverse media (newspapers, letters, reports, journals, etc.), a protagonist’s thoughts, or a narrator’s explanation of past events. It is one of the four rhetorical modes of communication – the other three being narration, description, and argumentation. Examples of Exposition in Literature Exposition in Movies Example #1: Star Wars (By George Lucas) There are countless examples of exposition in many great movies and one of them, which comes across particularly well, is from Star Wars. The exposition in this movie is the opening title sequence, which gives information about the past events to the audience. The crawling text on the screen at the beginning of each movie in the series gives the audience every piece of information they need to understand the upcoming events in the film. The opening lines usually begin like this: “A long time ago in a galaxy far away, far away…” Exposition in Literature Example #2: The Three Little Bears (By Robert Southey) An exposition is typically positioned at the beginning of a novel, movie, or other literary work, because the author wants the audience to be fully aware of the characters in the story. The famous children’s story entitled The Three Little Bears applies this technique of exposition.

“Once upon a time, there were three bears. There was a Daddy Bear, who was very big, a Mama Bear, who was middle-sized, and a Baby Bear, who was very small. They all lived together in a little cottage in the middle of the woods. Their favorite breakfast was porridge. One morning, after they made their porridge, Daddy Bear said, ‘Let’s go for walk in the woods until it cools.’ Mama Bear and Baby Bear liked the idea, so off they went. While they were away, a little girl named Goldilocks came walking through the forest and smelled the porridge…” With the help of a single passage, the author of the story has given us an overview of the bear family, their residence, and information that sets the story in motion. Example #3: Othello (By William Shakespeare) All of Shakespeare’s writings contain excellent exposition examples. Take Othello, Romeo and Juliet, Henry V, and Richard III, and you will see how exceptionally well he used the art of expository writing. Here, two examples from Othello have been taken to elaborate the point. The opening scene in Act I of Othello shows a fierce argument between Roderigo and Iago, which helps build the interest of the audience. The audience realizes that Iago is persistently trying to convince Roderigo to be his accomplice in destroying Othello. The exposition in this scene plays the following roles:  

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It explicates Iago’s treacherous, spiteful, and scheming nature. The main conflict of the play is revealed here. It revolves around Iago’s concealed bitterness towards his boss Othello who, in Iago’s opinion, is overlooking him for promotion. It ascertains two basic themes of the play: racism, and that appearance is not always the same as reality.

At the end of Act 1, the play gives the audience a few facts about Othello, including:   

He is a very respectable man. He had run away with Desdemona, Brabantio’s daughter. He is a great general who is sought by Venice to defend it in the war against the Turks.

As is evident from the examples given above, exposition always gives us an insight into the characters’ personalities, and adds flavor to the tragedy and drama we see towards the end of the play. Function of Exposition

The importance of exposition in literature, as well as in our practical lives, cannot be ignored. Examining the types of writing we come across in our daily lives shows us that almost all of them are incomplete without exposition. The fiction books, articles, and magazines that people read in their everyday lives essentially rely on exposition to connect the readers to the main story by giving them the background information. In most cases, a narrative or script loses its essence if not accompanied by an exposition. Not only is it important for bringing clarity to a script, but it is also vital to enhance its literary value. The true essence of a book usually lies in how the reader is introduced to the characters in it and, if done correctly, the reader automatically starts relating to them. Moreover, exposition is widely used for academic purposes in schools, colleges, and universities. Generally, students are asked to submit research reports and pass exams to establish their progress. The exposition here is keeping the academia updated on what you have learned so far. Also, employees are asked very often to put together business reports and memorandums to update their employers about their progress. Point of View Definition of Point of View Point of view is the angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion or feelings of the individuals involved in a situation. In literature, point of view is the mode of narration that an author employs to let the readers “hear” and “see” what takes place in a story, poem, or essay. Point of view is a reflection of the opinion an individual from real life or fiction has. Examples of point of view belong to one of these three major kinds: 1. First person point of view involves the use of either of the two pronouns “I” or “we.” 

“I felt like I was getting drowned with shame and disgrace.”

2. Second person point of view employs the pronoun “you.” 

“Sometimes you cannot clearly discern between anger and frustration.”

3. Third person point of view uses pronouns like “he,” “she,” “it,” “they,” or a name.

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“ Stewart is a principled man. He acts by the book and never lets you deceive him easily.”

Examples of Point of View in Literature Example #1: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare) Hamlet, the protagonist, explains the feeling of melancholy that afflicts him after his father’s death: “I have of late, — but wherefore I know not, — lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises; and indeed, it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory.” This is one of the best first-person point of view examples in literature. The use of first-person point of view gives us a glimpse into the real inner feelings of frustration of the character. The writer has utilized the first-person point of view to expose Hamlet’s feelings in a detailed way. Example #2: Daffodils (By William Wordsworth) “I gazed – and gazed – but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought.” Notice how William Wordsworth uses the first-person point of view to express his subjective feelings about the scene of daffodils in his famous poem. The use of the pronoun “I” gives a special quality to the feelings expressed in these lines. The reader can see that the poet has employed first-person point of view to share with us his own personal emotions. Example #3: The Sun also Rises (By Ernest Hemingway) Ernest Hemingway, in The Sun also Rises, employs the first-person point of view which is peculiar to his style. “I could picture it. I have a habit of imagining the conversations between my friends. We went out to the Cafe Napolitain to have an aperitif and watch the evening crowd on the Boulevard.” The use of two first person pronouns, “I” and “we,” gives these lines the quality of having a first person point of view. The reader can feel like he or she is hearing the dialogue directly from the characters. Example #4: Bright Lights, Big City (By Jay Mclnemey)

“You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at this time of the morning. But here you are, and you cannot say that the terrain is entirely unfamiliar, although the details are fuzzy.” Here, the writer illustrates the use of second-person point of view with the use of the pronoun “you.” This technique may be less common, but it has its own strength of hooking the reader right from the start. Example #5: Pride and Prejudice (By Jane Austen) “When Jane and Elizabeth were alone, the former, who had been cautious in her praise of Mr. Bingley before, expressed to her sister how very much she admired him.” “He is just what a young man ought to be,” said she, “sensible, good humoured, lively; and I never saw such happy manners! — so much ease, with such perfect good breeding!” These lines demonstrate a fine use of the third-person point of view. The excerpt shows the reader two different ways of using third person point of view. Jane Austen first presents two leading characters –Jane and Elizabeth – from the third-person point of view, and then shows us that the two characters are talking about Bingley from their own third-person point of view. This can be a good example of the use of dual third person point of view – first by the author, and then by the characters. Function of Point of View Point of view is an integral tool of description in the author’s hands to portray personal emotions or characters’ feelings about an experience or situation. Writers use a point of view to express effectively what they want to convey to their readers. Theme Definition of Theme Theme is defined as a main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work, which may be stated directly or indirectly. Major and Minor Themes Major and minor themes are two types of themes that appear in literary works. A major theme is an idea that a writer repeats in his literary work, making it the most significant idea in the work. A minor theme, on the other hand, refers to an idea that appears in a work briefly, giving way to another minor theme. Examples of theme in

Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” are matrimony, love, friendship, and affection. The whole narrative revolves around the major theme of matrimony. Its minor themes are love, friendship, affectation etc. Difference Between a Theme and a Subject It is important not to confuse a theme of a literary work with its subject. Subject is a topic that acts as a foundation for a literary work, while a theme is an opinion expressed on the subject. For example, a writer may choose a subject of war for his story, and the theme may be his personal opinion that war is a curse for humanity. Usually, it is up to the readers to explore the theme of a literary work by analyzing characters, plot, and other literary devices. Presentation of Themes A writer presents themes in a literary work through several means. A writer may express a theme through the feelings of his main character about the subject he has chosen to write about. Similarly, themes are presented through thoughts and conversations of different characters. Moreover, the experiences of the main character in the course of a literary work give us an idea about its theme. Finally, the actions and events taking place in a narrative are consequential in determining its theme. Short Examples of Theme 1. When the astronaut landed on the moon, he felt loneliness. Thinking there was no one else, he became a little forlorned, though the view of Earth was stunningly beautiful. (Theme of lonesomeness) 2. The space travelers were travelling to the moon, when their spaceship suddenly ran out of fuel. They were all frightened to learn that they wouldn’t be able to return to Earth, and could only land on the moon. (Theme of fear) 3. The bus was travelling at a great speed when it was stopped by a gang of robbers. The passengers were ordered to get out, leaving their precious belongings in the bus. (Theme of fear) 4. Their marriage ceremony was taking place in a grand hotel. All the eminent people of the city were invited, the reason that the celebration was excellent. (Theme of happiness)

5. As soon as the clock struck 12 at noon, the jubilations started. It travelled from East to West on the first day of the year. (Theme of felicitation) 6. The religious leader was leading a huge congregation of followers, praying with utmost humility. (Theme of religiosity) 7. All the family members were dressed in black, with somber faces. They were participating in the funeral ceremony of their deceased relative. (Theme of gloom) 8. The cricket match was reaching a highpoint, the fans of both teams screaming their support. It was an excellent game. (Theme of cheerfulness) 9. The teacher said that she hoped all of her students would pass with good grades. (Theme of optimism) 10. The father of the slowwitted student said he had no false hopes about his son’s future. (Theme of pessimism) 11. The immigrant looked around to talk to somebody, but could find no one who spoke his language. He felt claustrophobic and desolate. (Theme of hopelessness) 12. Only the laborers were working on Labor Day. (Theme of irony) 13. The conference was in full swing, with scholars delivering knowledgeable lectures on varying subjects. The audience enjoyed it immensely. (Theme of learning) 14. The politician was delivering a speech on the need for peace between two neighboring states. He said through peace they could achieve what not possible through war. (Theme of peace) 15. The general commanded his troops to open fire at the enemy, and to kill each and every soldier of the combatants. (Theme of war) Examples of Theme in Literature Example #1: Love and Friendship Theme Love and friendship are frequently occurring themes in literature. They generate emotional twists and turns in a narrative, and can lead to a variety of endings: happy, sad, or bittersweet. The following are famous literary works with love and friendship themes:

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Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

Example #2: War Theme The theme of war has been explored in literature since ancient times. literary woks utilizing this theme may either glorify or criticize the idea of war. Most recent literary works portray war as a curse for humanity, due to the suffering it inflicts. Some famous examples include:      

Iliad and Odyssey by Homer War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway Arms and the Man by Bernard Shaw A Band of Brothers: Stories from Vietnam by Walter McDonald

Example #3: Crime and Mystery Themes Crime and mystery are utilized in detective novels. Such narratives also include subthemes, such as “crimes cannot be hidden,” “evil is always punished,” and others. Some well-known crime and mystery theme examples include:     

The Murders in the Rue Morgue by Edgar Allan Poe Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle Bleak House by Charles Dickens Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha Christie Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown

Example #4: Revenge Theme Revenge is another recurrent theme found in many popular literary works. A character comes across certain circumstances that make him aware of his need for revenge. The outcome of his action is often bitter, but sometimes they may end up being satisfied. Examples are:    

Hamlet and Macbeth by William Shakespeare The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexander Dumas The Girl Who Kicked the Hornet’s Nest by Stieg Larsson A Time to Kill by John Grisham

Example #5: Annabel Lee (By Edgar Allan Poe) “I was a child and she was a child, In this kingdom by the sea, But we loved with a love that was more than love— I and my Annabel Lee— With a love that the wingèd seraphs of Heaven Coveted her and me.” This short extract, taken from Poe’s poem, depicts the theme of love. Example #6: The Charge of the Light Brigade (By Alfred Tennyson) “Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. ‘Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!’ he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred.” This extract from a poem by Tennyson has two interwoven themes. War is the main theme of the poem, which naturally leads to death — while the theme of death is interwoven with the theme of war. Function of Theme Theme is an element of a story that binds together various essential elements of a narrative. It is often a truth that exhibits universality, and stands true for people of all cultures. Theme gives readers better understanding of the main character’s conflicts, experiences, discoveries, and emotions as they are derived from them. Through themes, a writer tries to give his readers an insight into how the world works, or how he or she views human life.