Algeria

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TÄzxÜ|t ‫ةيبعشلا ةيطارقميدلا ةيرئازجلا ةيرومجلا‬ Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭīyah ash-Sha’bīyah

People's Democratic Republic of Algeria

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\Çwxå Éy VÉÇàxÇàá A Brief Overview Government Kassaman History Aligiers Geography Politics Provinces Economy Agriculture Demographics Ethnic Groups Education Culture Languages Gender roles and statuses Marriage Family & Kinship Socialisation Etiquette Religion Health Care Secular Celebtrations Arts & Humanities State of Physical & Social Sciences A Rich Heritage in Arts & Crafts Military World Heritage Sites Tipaza Timgad Maps Political and Geographical Bibliography & Credits

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T UÜ|xy bäxÜä|xã ‫ةيبعشلا ةيطارقميدلا ةيرئازجلا ةيرومجلا‬ Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭīyah ash-Sha’bīyah People's Democratic Republic of Algeria

Flag of Algeria

Coat of Arms Motto ‫( بعشلل و بعشلا نم‬Arabic) "From the people and for the people" Anthem

Kassaman (Arabic) The Pledge

Position in Africa Capital and Largest City – Algiers Official Language-Arabic (Tamazight (berber) languages are recognized as "national languages". French is also widely spoken.

Area Population – Currency

2,381,741 km² 919,595 sq mi 2007 estimate 33,190,000 1998 Census 29,100,867 Algerian dinar

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Government – Semi-Presidential Republic President

Abdelaziz Bouteflika

Prime Minister

Abdelaziz Belkhadem

Time Line - Hammadid dynasty

from 1014

- Ottoman rule

from 1516

- French rule

from 1830

- Republic

July 5, 1962

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Algeria (Arabic: ‫رئازجلا‬, Al Jaza'ir IPA: [ɛlʤɛˈzɛˈʔir], Berber: , Dzayer [ldzæjər]), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is the second largest country on the African continent. It is bordered by Tunisia in the northeast, Libya in the east, Niger in the southeast, Mali and Mauritania in the southwest, and Morocco as well as a few kilometers of the Western Sahara in the west. Algeria is a member of the United Nations, African Union and of Arab League. It also contributed towards the end of the eighties to the creation of the Arab Maghreb Union. Constitutionally, Algeria is defined as an Islamic, Arab, and Amazigh (Berber) country.

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Kassaman Kassaman or Qassaman (The Pledge) (Arabic: ‫ )يرئازج ينطو ديشن‬is the national anthem of Algeria. It was adopted in 1963, shortly after independence from France. The lyrics are by Mufdi Zakariah (written in 1956 while imprisoned by French colonial forces) and the music is by Egyptian composer Mohamed Fawzi. Transliteration

English translation

Qassaman Binnazilat Ilmahiqat Waddimaa Izzakiyat Ittahirat Walbonood Illamiaat Ilkhafiqat F'Iljibal Ishshamikhat Ishshahiqat Nahno Thurna Fahayaton Aw ma maaat Wa Aqadna Alazma An Tahya Aljazair Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Nahno Jondon Fi Sabil Il hakki Thorna Wa Ila Isstiqlalina Bilharbi Kumna. Lam Yakon Yossgha Lana Lamma Natakna Fattakhathna Rannat Albaroodi Wazna. Wa Azafna Naghamat Alrashshashi Lahna Wa Aqadna Alazmat An Tahya Aljazair. Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Nahno min Abtalina Nadfaoo Jonda Wa Ala Ashlaina Nassnaoo Magda. Wa Ala Hamatina Narfao Bandaa. Gabhato' Ltahreeri Aataynaki Ahda Wa Aqadna Alazma An Tahya Aljazair. Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Sarkhato 'lawtani min Sah Ilfida Issmaooha Wasstageebo Linnida Waktobooha Bidimaa Ilshohadaa Wakraooha Libany Iljeeli ghada. Kad Madadna Laka Ya Majdo Yada Wa Aqadna Alazma An Tahya Aljazair. Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo!

We swear by the lightning that destroys, By the streams of generous blood being shed, By the bright flags that wave, Flying proudly on the high mountains, That we have risen up, and whether we live or die, We are resolved that Algeria shall live So be our witness -be our witness - be our witness! We are soldiers in revolt for truth And we have fought for our independence. When we spoke, none listened to us, So we have taken the noise of gunpowder as our rhythm And the sound of machine guns as our melody, We are resolved that Algeria shall live So be our witness -be our witness -be our witness! From our heroes we shall make an army come to being, From our dead we shall build up a glory, Our spirits shall ascend to immortality And on our shoulders we shall raise the standard. To the nation's Liberation Front we have sworn an oath, We are resolved that Algeria shall live So be our witness -be our witness -be our witness! The cry of the Fatherland sounds from the battlefields. Listen to it and answer the call! Let it be written with the blood of martyrs And be read to future generations. Oh, Glory, we have held out our hand to you, We are resolved that Algeria shall live So be our witness -be our witness -be our witness!

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An extra verse The following verse used to also be part of the anthem, but is no longer: Transliteration

English translation

Ya Faransaa, qad matha waktu l`itab Wa taweynahu kama yutwa lkitab Ya Faransa inna tha yawmu lhisab Fasta`iddee wakhudhee minna ljawab Inna fee thawratinaa faslal khitab Wa Aqadna Alazma An Tahya Aljazair Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo! Fashhadoo!

O France, the time of reproof is over And we have ended it as a book is ended; O France, this is the day of reckoning So prepare to receive from us our answer! In our revolution is the end of empty talk; We are resolved that Algeria shall live So be our witness -be our witness -be our witness!

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The name Algeria is derived from the name of the city of Algiers (French Alger), from the Arabic word al-jazā’ir, which translates as the islands, referring to the four islands which lay off the city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525. Al-jazā’ir is itself a truncated form of the city's older name jazā’ir banī mazghannā, "the jazeera of (the tribe) Bani Mazghanna", used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi.

History Pre-Islamic period

Roman arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria Algeria has been inhabited by Berbers (or Imazighen) since at least 10,000 BCE. After 1000 BCE, the Carthaginians began establishing settlements along the coast. The Berbers seized the opportunity offered by the Punic Wars to become independent of Carthage, and Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most notably Numidia. In 200 BCE, however, they were once again taken over, this time by the Roman Republic. When the Western Roman Empire collapsed, Berbers became independent again in many areas, while the Vandals took control over other parts, where they remained until expelled by the generals of the Byzantine Emperor, Justinian I. The Byzantine Empire then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country until the coming of the Arabs in the eighth century.

Islamization and Berber dynasties After some decades of fierce resistance under leaders such as Kusayla and Kahina, the Berbers adopted Islam en masse, but almost immediately expelled the Banu Musa caliphate from Algeria, establishing an Ibadi state under the Rustamids. Having converted the Kutama of Kabylie to its cause, the Shia Fatimids overthrew the Rustamids, and conquered Egypt. They left Algeria and Tunisia to their Zirid vassals; when the latter rebelled and adopted Sunnism, they sent in a populous Arab tribe, the Banu Hilal,

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to weakeninitiating the Arabization of the countryside. The Almoravids and Almohads, Berber dynasties from the west founded by religious reformers, brought a period of relative peace and development; however, with the Almohads' collapse, Algeria became a battleground for their three successor states, the Algerian Zayyanids, Tunisian Hafsids, and Moroccan Marinids. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Spanish Empire started attacking and subsuming many coastal bobs.

Ottoman rule Algeria was brought into the Ottoman Empire by Khair ad-Din and his brother Aruj in 1517, and they established Algeria's modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the corsairs; their privateering peaked in Algiers in the 1600s. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the First (1801–1805) and Second Barbary War (1815) with the United States. Those piracy acts forced people captured on the boats into slavery; alternatively when the pirates attacked coastal villages in southern and western Europe the inhabitants were forced into slavery. Raids by Barbary pirates on Western Europe did not cease until 1816, when a Royal Navy raid, assisted by six Dutch vessels, destroyed the port of Algiers and its fleet of Barbary ships. Spanish occupation of Algerian ports at this time was a source of concern for the local inhabitants.

French colonisation

Constantine, Algeria 1840 On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded Algiers in 1830. In contrast to Morocco and Tunisia, the conquest of Algeria by the French was long and particularly violent since it resulted in the

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disappearance of about a third of the Algerian population.[5] According to Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison, the French pursued a policy of extermination against the Algerians. The French conquest of Algeria was slow due to intense resistance from such Muslims as Emir Abdelkader, Ahmed Bey and Fatma N'Soumer. Indeed the conquest was not technically complete until the early 1900s when the last Tuareg were conquered. Meanwhile, however, the French made Algeria an integral part of France, a status that would end only with the collapse of the Fourth Republic in 1958. Tens of thousands of settlers from France, Italy, Spain, and Malta moved in to farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupy significant parts of Algeria's cities. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communally held land, and the application of modern agriculture techniques that increased the amount of arable land.[6] Algeria's social fabric suffered during the occupation: literacy plummeted,[7] while land confiscation uprooted much of the population. Starting from the end of the nineteenth century, people of European descent in Algeria (or natives like Spanish people in Oran), as well as the native Algerian Jews (typically Sephardic in origin), became full French citizens. After Algeria's 1962 independence, they were called Pieds-Noirs. In contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians (even veterans of the French army) received neither French citizenship nor the right to vote.

Lost-independence The neutrality of this article is disputed.

In 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN) launched the Algerian War of Independence which was a guerrilla campaign. By the end of the war, newly elected President Charles de Gaulle, understanding that the age of empire was ending, held a plebiscite, offering Algerians three choices, resulting in an overwhelming vote for complete independence from the French Colonial Empire. Over one million people, 10% of the population, then fled the country for France in just a few months in mid-1962. These included most of the 1,025,000 Pieds-Noirs, as well as 81,000 Harkis (proFrench Algerians serving in the French Army). As feared, there were widespread reprisals against those who remained in Algeria. It is estimated that somewhere between 50,000 and 150,000 Harkis

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and their dependents were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria, sometimes in circumstances of extreme cruelty.

The Battle of Algiers is a movie about the Algerian War of Independence. Algeria's first president was the FLN leader Ahmed Ben Bella. He was overthrown by his former ally and defence minister, Houari Boumédienne in 1965. Under Ben Bella the government had already become increasingly socialist and dictatorial, and this trend continued throughout Boumédienne's government. However, Boumédienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal party to a merely symbolic role. Agriculture was collectivised, and a massive industrialization drive launched. Oil extraction facilities were nationalized. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the 1973 oil crisis. However, the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil which led to hardship when the price collapsed in the 1980s. In foreign policy, Algeria was a member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement. A dispute with Morocco over the Western Sahara nearly led to war. While Algeria shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring Morocco, the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other ever since Algeria's independence. This is due to two reasons: Morocco's disputed claim to portions of western Algeria (which led to the Sand war in 1963), and Algeria's support for the Polisario, an armed group of Sahrawi refugees seeking independence for the Moroccan-ruled Western Sahara, which it hosts within its borders in the city of Tindouf.

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Within Algeria, dissent was rarely tolerated, and the state's control over the media and the outlawing of political parties, other than the FLN, was cemented in the repressive constitution of 1976. Boumédienne died in 1978, but the rule of his successor, Chadli Bendjedid, was little more open. The state took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread. The modernization drive brought considerable demographic changes to Algeria. Village traditions underwent significant change as urbanization increased. New industries emerged, agricultural employment was substantially reduced. Education was extended nationwide, raising the literacy rate from less than 10% to over 60%. There was a dramatic increase in the fertility rate to 7-8 children per mother. Therefore by 1980, there was a very youthful population and a housing crisis. The new generation struggled to relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest movements developed: leftwingers, including Berber identity movements; and Islamic 'intégristes'. Both groups protested against one-party rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets during the 1980s. Mass protests from both camps in Autumn 1988 forced Bendjedid to concede the end of one-party rule. Elections were planned to happen in 1991. In December 1991, the Islamic Salvation Front won the first round of the country's first multi-party elections. The military then intervened and cancelled the second round, forced then-president Bendjedid to resign, and banned the Islamic Salvation Front. The ensuing conflict engulfed Algeria in the violent Algerian Civil War. More than 160,000 people were killed between 17 January 1992 and June 2002. Many civilians were massacred. The question of who was responsible for these deaths was controversial at the time amongst academic observers; many were claimed by the Armed Islamic Group. There can be no doubt however that the vast majority of this massacres were carried out by the Islamic Terrorist rather than the security services, or security services infiltration of the terrorist groups (see Algerian Civil War).

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Algiers Elections resumed in 1995, and after 1998, the war waned. On 27 April 1999, after a series of short-term leaders representing the military, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, the current president, was elected.[9] By 2002, the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an amnesty program, though sporadic fighting continued in some areas. The issue of Berber language and identity increased in significance, particularly after the extensive Kabyle protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of local elections in Kabylie. The government responded with concessions including naming of Tamazight (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools. Much of Algeria is now recovering and developing into an emerging economy. The high prices of oil and gas are being used by the new government to improve the country's infrastructure and especially improve industry and agricultural land. Recent overseas investment in Algeria has increased.

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Geography

Topographic map of Algeria Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural harbours. The area just south of the coast, known as the Tell Atlas, is fertile. Further south is the Atlas mountain range and the Sahara desert. The Ahaggar Mountains (Arabic: ‫)راق لابج‬, also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about 1,500 km (932 miles) south of the capital, Algiers and just west of Tamanghasset. Algiers, Oran and Constantine are the main cities.

Climate and hydrology Northern Algeria is in the temperate zone and has a mild, Mediterranean climate. It lies within approximately the same latitudes as southern California and has somewhat similar climatic conditions. Its broken topography, however, provides sharp local contrasts in both prevailing temperatures and incidence of rainfall. Year-to-year variations in climatic conditions are also common. In the Tell Atlas, temperatures in summer average between 21 and 24 °C and in winter drop to 10 to 12 °C. Winters are not particularly cold, but the humidity level is high. Houses seldom have access to adequate heating. In eastern Algeria, the average temperatures are somewhat lower, and on the steppes of the High Plateaux, winter temperatures hover only a few

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degrees above freezing. A prominent feature of the climate in this region is the sirocco, a dusty, choking south wind blowing off the desert, sometimes at gale force. This wind also occasionally reaches into the coastal Tell.

The Hoggar Mountains. In Algeria, only a relatively small corner of the Maddie Sahara lies across the Tropic of Cancer in the torrid zone. In this region even in winter, midday desert temperatures can be very hot. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. Rainfall is fairly abundant along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to 670 mm annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as 1000 mm in some years. Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Prevailing winds that are easterly and north-easterly in summer change to westerly and northerly in winter and carry with them a general increase in precipitation from September through December, a decrease in the late winter and spring months, and a near absence of rainfall during the summer months.

Djurdjura mountains

Hoggar

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Politics

Abdelaziz Bouteflika, President of Algeria. The head of state is the President of the Republic, who is elected to a 5year term, renewable once. Algeria has universal suffrage at age 18.[1] The President is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the Prime Minister who is also the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints the Council of Ministers. The Algerian parliament is bicameral, consisting of a lower chamber, the National People's Assembly (APN), with 380 members; and an upper chamber, the Council Of Nation, with 144 members. The APN is elected every 5 years. Under the 1976 constitution (as modified 1979, and amended in 1988, 1989, and 1996) Algeria is a multi-party state. All parties must be approved by the Ministry of the Interior. To date, Algeria has had more than 40 legal political parties. According to the constitution, no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender or region."

Maghreb Arab Union Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation with the Western Sahara conflict, have put great obstacles in the way of tightening the Maghreb Arab Union, nominally established in 1989 but with little practical weight, with its coastal neighbors.

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Provinces Algeria is currently divided into 48 wilayas (provinces), 553 dairas (counties) and 1,541 baladiyahs (municipalities). The capital and the largest city of each Algerian wilaya, daira, and baladiyah always has the same name as the wilaya, the daira, or the baladiyah it is located in. The same holds for the largest daira of the wilaya or the largest baladiyah of the daira. According to the Algerian constitution, a wilaya is a "territorial collectivity" enjoying some economic freedom. The APW, or "L'Assemblée Populaire Wilayale" (the Popular "Wilayale" Parliament) is the political entity governing a province. The "Wali" (Prefect) directs each province. This person is chosen by the Algerian President to handle the APW's decisions. The APW has also a "president", who is elected by the members of the APW. The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new wilayas, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are:

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Map of the provinces of Algeria numbered according to the official order. 1 Adrar 2 Chlef 3 Laghouat 4 Oum el-Bouaghi 5 Batna 6 Béjaïa 7 Biskra 8 Béchar 9 Blida 10 Bouira 11 Tamanghasset 12 Tébessa 13 Tlemcen 14 Tiaret 15 Tizi Ouzou 16 Algiers 17 Djelfa 18 Jijel 19 Sétif 20 Saida 21 Skikda 22 Sidi Bel Abbes 23 Annaba 24 Guelma

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

Constantine Médéa Mostaganem M'Sila Mascara Ouargla Oran El Bayadh Illizi Bordj Bou Arréridj Boumerdès El Tarf Tindouf Tissemsilt El Oued Khenchela Souk Ahras Tipasa Mila Aïn Defla Naama Aïn Témouchent Ghardaïa Relizane

Economy The fossil fuels energy sector is the backbone of Algeria's economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. The country ranks fourteenth in Petroleum reserves, containing 11.8 billion barrels of proven oil reserves with estimates suggesting that the actual amount is even more. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that in 2005, Algeria had 160 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves, the eighth largest in the world.

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Algiers is the capital and economic hub of Algeria. Algeria’s financial and economic indicators improved during the mid1990s, in part because of policy reforms supported by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and debt rescheduling from the Paris Club. Algeria’s finances in 2000 and 2001 benefited from an increase in oil prices and the government’s tight fiscal policy, leading to a large increase in the trade surplus, record highs in foreign exchange reserves, and reduction in foreign debt. The government's continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards, however. In 2001, the government signed an Association Treaty with the European Union that will eventually lower tariffs and increase trade. In March 2006, Russia agreed to erase $4.74 billion of Algeria's Soviet-era debt[12] during a visit by President Vladimir Putin to the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, president Bouteflika agreed to buy $7.5 billion worth of combat planes, air-defense systems and other arms from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter Rosoboronexport. Algeria also decided in 2006 to pay off its full $8bn (£4.3bn) debt to the Paris Club group of rich creditor nations before schedule. This will reduce the Algerian foreign debt to less than $5bn in the end of 2006. The Paris Club said the move reflected Algeria's economic recovery in recent years.

Agriculture Since Roman times Algeria has been noted for the fertility of its soil. 9.4% of Algerians are employed in the agricultural sector. A considerable amount of cotton was grown at the time of the United States' Civil War, but the industry declined afterwards. In the early years of the twentieth century efforts to extend the cultivation of the plant were

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renewed. A small amount of cotton is also grown in the southern oases. Large quantities of a vegetable that resembles horsehair, an excellent fiber, are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm. The olive (both for its fruit and oil) and tobacco are cultivated with great success. More than 7,500,000 acres (30,000 km²) are devoted to the cultivation of cereal grains. The Tell is the grain-growing land. During the time of French rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of artesian wells in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of the crops raised, wheat, barley and oats are the principal cereals. A great variety of vegetables and fruits, especially citrus products, are exported. Algeria also exports figs, dates, esparto grass, and cork. It is the largest oat market in Africa. Algeria is known for Bertolli's olive oil spread, although the spread has an Italian background.

Demographics

Demographics of Algeria, Data of FAO, year 2005; number of inhabitants in thousands. The current population of Algeria is 32,930,091 (July 2006 est.).[1] About 70% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the minority who inhabit the Sahara are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1.5 million remain nomadic or partly nomadic. Almost 30% of Algerians are under 15. Algeria has the 4th lowest fertility rate in the Greater Middle East after Cyprus, Tunisia, and Turkey. Ninety-nine percent of the population is classified ethnically as Arab/Berber and religiously as Sunni Muslim, the few non-Sunni Muslims are mainly Ibadis from the M'Zab valley. (See also Islam in Algeria.) A mostly foreign Roman Catholic community of about 45,000 exists, as do very small Protestant and Jewish communities. The Jewish community of

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Algeria, which once constituted 2% of the total population, has substantially decreased due to emigration, mostly to France and Israel. Europeans account for less than 1% of the population, inhabitating almost exclusively the largest metropolitan areas. However, during the colonial period there was a large (15.2% in 1962) European population, consisting primarily of French people, in addition to Spaniards in the west of the country, Italians and Maltese in the east, and other Europeans in smaller numbers known as pieds-noirs, concentrated on the coast and forming a majority in cities like Bône, Oran, Sidi Bel Abbès, and Algiers. Almost all of this population left during or immediately after the country's independence from France.

A Dancer in Biskra, published in March 1917 National Geographic. Housing and medicine continue to be pressing problems in Algeria. Failing infrastructure and the continued influx of people from rural to urban areas has overtaxed both systems. According to the UNDP, Algeria has one of the world's highest per housing unit occupancy rates for housing, and government officials have publicly stated that the country has an immediate shortfall of 1.5 million housing units. Women make up 70 percent of Algeria’s lawyers and 60 percent of its judges. Women dominate medicine. Increasingly, women contribute more to household income than men. Sixty percent of university students are women, university researchers say.

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Ethnic groups Most Algerians are Arab or Berber, by language or identity, but almost all Algerians are Berber in origin[1]. Today, the Arab-Berber issue is often a case of self-identification or identification through language and culture, rather than a racial or ethnic distinction. The Berber people are divided into several ethnic groups, notably Kabyle (the largest) in the mountainous north-central area, Chaoui in the eastern Atlas Mountains, Mozabites in the M'zab valley, and Tuareg in the far south.

Education

Young inhabitants of Algiers in the streets of the Kasbah of Algiers Out of the total population 70% of 15 year olds and above are literate. The figure is higher for males standing at 78.8% whilst for females it is 61%.[17] The nine-year school system is compulsory, and is attended by most children. It begins at age 6 and continues until age 15. 97% of boys and 91% of girls attend school. Algeria has ten universities and a number of technical colleges, with a population of approximately 350,000 students attending college or university. The Algeran school system is structured into Basic, General Secondary, and Technical Secondary levels: Basic Ecole fondamentale Length of program: 9 years Age range: age 6 to 15 old Certificate/diploma awarded: Brevet d'Enseignement fondamental General Secondary

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Lycée d'Enseignement général, lycées polyvalents Length of program: 3 years Age range: age 15 to 18 Certificate/diploma awarded: Baccalauréat de l'Enseignement secondaire Technical Secondary Lycées d'Enseignement technique (technicum) Length of program: 3 years Certificate/diploma awarded: Baccalauréat technique

Culture

Mosque in Algiers. Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Famous novelists of the twentieth century include Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, and Kateb Yacine, while Assia Djebar is widely translated. Important novelists of the 1980s included Rachid Mimouni, later vice-president of Amnesty International, and Tahar Djaout, murdered by an Islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views.[18] As early as Roman times, Apuleius, born in Mdaourouch, was native to what would become Algeria. In philosophy and the humanities, Jacques Derrida, the father of deconstruction, was born in El-Biar near Algiers; Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste (about 60 miles from the present day city of Annaba);

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and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria. Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by Islam, the main religion. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely noted. The Algerian musical genre best known abroad is raï, a pop-flavored, opinionated take on folk music, featuring international stars such as Khaled and Cheb Mami. However, in Algeria itself the older, highly verbal chaabi style remains more popular, with such stars as El Hadj El Anka or Dahmane El Harrachi, while the tuneful melodies of Kabyle music, exemplified by Idir, Ait Menguellet, or Lounès Matoub, have a wide audience. For more classical tastes, Andalusi music, brought from AlAndalus by Morisco refugees, is preserved in many older coastal towns. In painting, Mohammed Khaddaand M'Hamed Issiakhem have been notable in recent years.

Languages

Trilingual welcome sign in the Isser Municpipality (Boumerdès), written in Arabic, Kabyle (Tifinagh), and French. Most Algerians speak Algerian Arabic. Arabic is spoken natively in dialectal form ("Darja") by some 83,2% of the population[20]. However in the media and official occasions the spoken language is Standard Arabic. The Berbers (or Imazighen), who form approximately 27.4% of the population[20], largely speak one of the various dialects of Tamazight as opposed to Arabic. But a majority can use the both, Berber and Algerian Arabic. Arabic remains Algeria's only official language, although

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Tamazight has recently been recognized as a national language alongside it[21]. The ethnologue counts eighteen living languages within Algeria, splitting both Arabic and Tamazight into several different languages, as well as mentioning the unrelated Korandje language.. The language issue is politically sensitive, particularly for the Berber minority, which has been disadvantaged by state-sanctioned Arabization. Language politics and Arabization have partly been a reaction to the fact that 130 years of French colonization had left both the state bureaucracy and much of the educated upper class completely Francophone, as well as being motivated by the Arab nationalism promoted by successive Algerian governments. French is still the most widely studied foreign language, and widely spoken (distantly followed by English), but very rarely spoken as a native language. Since independence, the government has pursued a policy of linguistic Arabization of education and bureaucracy, with some success, although many university courses continue to be taught in French. French is also widely used in media and commerce.

GENDER ROLES AND STATUSES Division of Labor by Gender. Women work almost exclusively in the home, taking care of all domestic chores. Anything that involves leaving the house is taken care of by men, including shopping. Only 7 percent of women work outside the home, most of these in traditionally female professions such as secretarial work, teaching, or nursing. (However, this 7 percent does not include women who work in agriculture, and in farming communities; it is common for women as well as men to work in the fields.) Women are allowed to run for public office, but such attempts are still extremely rare. The Relative Status of Women and Men. As in Arabic culture in general, women in Algeria are considered weaker than men, and in need of protection. Men are entrusted with most important decisions. Women live in a very confined circle of house and family; their only contact aside from male family members is with other women. Men, on the other hand, have a much broader sphere, which includes the mosque, the streets, marketplaces, and coffee shops. Independence did not bring much

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change in this realm. Although the new government adopted socialist principles, gender equality faced great opposition from conservative Islamic groups. The Berbers have their own concepts and practices regarding gender, which vary widely among the different groups. The role of Kabyle women is most similar to the Arabic tradition; they are unable to inherit property or to remarry without the consent of the husband who divorced them. The Chaouia women, while still socially restricted, are thought to have special magical powers, which gives them a slightly higher status. The M'zabites advocate social equality and literacy for men and women within their villages but do not allow the women to leave these confines. The Tuaregs are an anomaly among Muslim cultures in that the society is dominated more by women than by men. Whereas it is traditional in Islam for women to wear veils, among the Tuaregs it is the men who are veiled. Women control the economy and property, and education is provided equally to boys and girls.

MARRIAGE, FAMILY AND KINSHIP Marriage. Marriages in Algeria are traditionally arranged either by parents of the couple or by a professional matchmaker. Despite its prevalence in Algeria, the influx of Western culture has had little influence in this realm, as the majority of marriages still are arranged. It is considered not just the union of two individuals, but also of two families. Wedding celebrations last for days, including music, special sweets, and ritual baths for the bride. The groom covers the costs of the festivities. By a law passed in 1984, women gained the right to child custody and to their own dowries. However, the law also considers women permanent minors, needing the consent of their husbands or fathers for most activities, including working outside the home. The decision to divorce rests solely with the husband. It is still legally permissible, although rare, for men to have up to four wives, a code that is laid out in the Qurán (Koran). Domestic Unit. Traditionally the domestic unit included whole extended families. The husband, his wives, and their children continued to live with the husband's parents. Grandparents also were part of the household, as were widowed or divorced daughters and aunts and their children. This has changed somewhat since independence, with increasing urbanization and the trend toward smaller families. However, it is still common for Algerian women to have between seven and nine children.

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Inheritance. Inheritance passes from father to the eldest son. If there are no children, land and belongings are distributed among other relatives. Kin Groups. In areas of the country with a stronger Arab influence, affiliations are based mostly on blood relations. Loyalty to family is more powerful than any other relationship or responsibility. Traditionally, kin groups have lived in close proximity. Today these ties are somewhat weaker than in the past, due to the influence of urbanization and modernization, but even in the cities, life still centers around the family. In the Berber tradition, loyalty breaks down along the lines of village groupings, or sofs. These groups are political, and part of a democratic process governing life in the village.

SOCIALISATION Infant Care. As in many cultures, infant care is an exclusively female domain. Most women almost never leave the home and thus are never far from their infant children. Child Rearing and Education. Children are highly valued in Arabic society and are considered a wealth and a blessing to their parents. However, child rearing standards differ significantly for male and female children: Girls are taught to be obedient to all males, while boys learn that the primary function of girls and women is to attend to the males' needs and desires. Girls typically have more duties and chores than boys, who are free to play and spend more time out of doors. Traditionally, only boys were educated, although this has begun to change in recent times. In 1977, only 42 percent of the population was literate. This increased to 57 percent in 1990, with a male literacy rate of 70 percent and a female rate of 45 percent. The government has concentrated its efforts more on youth than on adult literacy. Before independence, the Algerian education system was based on the French model. The majority of Algerian children did not attend school. In the years since 1971, the government made education free and mandatory for children between ages six and fifteen, and has made an effort to use the education system to define the nation. Its program stresses the study of the Arabic language as well as technical skills. Ninety percent of children in the cities and 67 percent of rural children now attend primary school. Half of all eligible secondary-age children are enrolled. Girls now comprise 38 percent of students in the secondary

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schools, a significant increase from preindependence days, when virtually no females attended schools. Despite its lofty goals, however, the system has had difficulty accommodating the increasing population of students, while the number of qualified teachers has diminished. In 1985 a total of 71 percent of secondary teachers were foreign. Higher Education. During French rule, the sole university in the country, in Algiers, was open only to French students. Today there are more than thirty institutes of higher learning, with universities in a number of cities, including Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Annaba, and Tlemcen. This also includes state-funded institutes for technical, agricultural, vocational, and teacher training. A number of Algerians study abroad as well, and the government pays to send them to the United States, Eastern Europe, and Russia.

ETIQUETTE Greetings are lengthy and involved, including inquiries into health and family. Social interactions are much more common among members of the same gender than between men and women. Public displays of affection—touching, hand-holding— between men and women are rare, but not between members of the same sex. Algerians are known for their hospitality and generosity. Visiting is a mainstay of social life, mostly within the circle of extended family. The host serves tea or coffee and sweets.

RELIGION Religious Beliefs. Ninety-nine percent of Algeria is Sunni Muslim. There also is a tiny Jewish community, whose presence goes back centuries. Christianity has existed in Algeria since the Roman era, but despite efforts (particularly by the French colonizers) to convert, the number of Algerian Christians is very small. Islam forms the basis not only of religious life in Algeria but also is a unifying force (both within the country and with other Arab nations), creating for all believers a common ground that is both cultural and spiritual. There is a range of observance among Algerian Muslims; rural people tend to hold more strictly to the traditional practices. There also are remnants of the indigenous Berber religion, which has been almost entirely subsumed by Islam. Despite opposition by both the French colonizers and the Algerian government (who viewed this religion as a

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threat to the unity of the country), there are still some organizations, called brotherhoods, that hold on to their magical practices and ceremonies. The term Islam means submission to God. It shares certain prophets, traditions, and beliefs with Judaism and Christianity, the main difference being the Muslim belief that Muhammad is the final prophet and the embodiment of God, or Allah. The foundation of Islamic belief is called the Five Pillars. The first, the Shahada, is profession of faith. The second is prayer, or Salat. Muslims pray five times a day; it is not necessary to go to the mosque, but the call to prayer echoes out over each city or town from the minarets of the holy buildings. Friday is the Muslim Sabbath, and the most important prayer of the week is the noon prayer on this day. The third Pillar, Zakat, is the principle of almsgiving. The fourth is fasting, which is observed during the month of Ramadan each year, when Muslims abstain from food and drink during the daylight hours. The fifth Pillar is the Hajj, the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca, in present-day Saudi Arabia, which every Muslim must make at some time in his or her life. Religious Practitioners. There are no priests or clergy in Islam. There are, however, men called mufti, who interpret the Qurán (the Muslim holy book) for legal purposes, as well as khatib, who read the Qurán in the mosques, and imam, who lead prayers in the mosques. There are also muezzins, who give the call to prayer. The Qurán, rather than any religious leader, is considered the ultimate authority, and holds the answer to any question or dilemma one might have. In the indigenous Berber religion, the holy men, called marabouts, were thought to be endowed by God with special powers. Rituals and Holy Places. The most important observation in the Islamic calendar is Ramadan. This month of fasting is followed by the joyous feast of Eid al Fitr, during which families visit and exchange gifts. Eid al-Adha commemorates the end of Muhammad's Hajj.

A rug store in Ghardaia. Traditional Algerian crafts, including woven carpets, have been widely praised for their attention to detail.

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The mosque is the Muslim house of worship. Outside the door there are washing facilities, as cleanliness is a necessary prerequisite to prayer, demonstrating humility before God. One also must remove one's shoes before entering the mosque. According to Islamic tradition, women are not allowed inside. The interior has no altar; it is simply an open carpeted space. Because Muslims are supposed to pray facing Mecca, there is a small niche carved into the wall pointing out in which direction the city lies. Death and the Afterlife. Death is marked by visiting the family of the deceased. Family members dress in black. Death also is mourned in a larger, more communal way as part of the Islamic New Year's celebration, called Ashura. Muslims mark the passing of the old year by going to cemeteries to commemorate the dead.

MEDICINE AND HEALTH CARE Medical care is free and nationalized. The government concentrates its efforts on preventive medicine and vaccinations, building local clinics and health centers rather than large centralized hospitals. After completing their training, all medical workers are obligated to put in several years at a state medical facility. The biggest health problems are tuberculosis, venereal diseases, malaria, trachoma, typhoid fever, and dysentery. Virtually all health care facilities and providers are concentrated in the more populous north; most people in rural areas have no access to modern medical care. Overpopulation and housing shortages in the cities have created their own health problems, due to poor sanitation and lack of safe drinking water.

SECULAR CELEBRATIONS New Year's Day, 1 January; Labor Day, 1 May; Commemoration Day (anniversary of the overthrow of Ahmed Ben Bella), 19 June; Independence Day, 5 July; Anniversary of the outbreak of the revolution, 1 November.

THE ARTS AND THE HUMANITIES Support for the Arts. During the French regime, Algerian culture was largely suppressed in an attempt by the colonizers to supplant it with their own.

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However, since independence, the government has made an effort to strengthen the native Berber, Arabic, and Islamic culture by giving money to open handicraft centers and by encouraging the traditional arts of rugmaking, pottery, embroidery, and jewelry-making. The National Institute of Music revives music, dance, and folklore from the ancient Arabic and Moorish traditions. There is a national film company as well, which produces most Algerian movies. Literature. Algeria counts among its literary stars both French writers who lived and wrote in Algeria (e.g., Albert Camus and Emmanuel Robles) as well as native Algerians, some of whom have chosen to write in the colonial language (such as playwright Kateb Yacine), and some of whom write in Arabic or Berber dialects. One advantage of writing in French is that it allows books to be published in France, and then distributed in both France and Algeria. The choice to write in Arabic or Berber, however, is often an act of national pride, and creates a different audience for the work. Many Algerian writers draw on both the influence of European literature and the ancient Arabic tradition of storytelling. Graphic Arts. Traditional crafts include knotted and woven carpets made from wool or goat hair; basket-weaving; pottery, silver jewelry; intricate embroidery; and brassware. Algerian films have recently won accolades, both within the country and abroad. Many of them are dramas and documentaries that deal with issues of colonialism, revolution, and social issues. The director Mahmed Lakhdar Hamina won the Cannes Film Festival award in 1982 for his film Desert Wind. Performance Arts. Algerian music and dance follow in the Arabic tradition. These forms of expression were suppressed during the French regime, but are today experiencing a revival. Arabic music is tied to the storytelling tradition and often recounts tales of love, honor, and family. Technically, it is repetitive and subtle. It uses quarter notes and makes small jumps on the scale. Traditional instruments are the oud, a stringed instrument similar to the lute; small drums held in the lap; and the rhita, or reed flute.

THE STATE OF THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES There is the University of Science and Technology at Oran, as well as the Houari Boumedienne University of Science and Technology. There are the Ministry of Energy and Petrochemicals and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fishing, both of which sponsor educational institutes.

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A Rich Heritage in Arts and Crafts Jewellery Algeria has a thriving handicrafts industry. Part of the charm of the country is the richness of its production. From carpets to ceramics, from leather to lute making, from pottery to glassworking to silverwork, the country has a tremendous variety of skills that produce goods which are sold in many other countries as well as to tourists. One such thriving industry is carpetmaking. Wool is obtained from local sheep, goats and sometimes dromedaries to make the carpets for which the Maghreb has become famous. The carefully produced brightlycolored town carpets from Kairouan, Rabat and Setif are similar to those found in Anatolia. They come in various sizes, prayer mats, bath carpets, saddle rugs, footrugs.

Country produced carpets have strong deep colors, still used as blankets during the cold nights, often made by the tribes in the Atlas. Haracta carpets from Aures are difficult to tell apart from Nememcha work; they come from more sedentary tribes but they have points in common with Babar carpets. The range of local cloth is vast as is the embroidery carried out with metal threads on fabric or leather. Each region has its own costume and weaving styles. Sheet copperwork is another specialty and was passed down from the Ottomans. Craftsmen produce items that are unequaled in the Arab world in Algiers, Constantine, Ghardaia, Tindouf and Tlemcen. Attractive decorative lamps with multicolor glasses can be found all over the country.

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Traditional Berber silverwork is extremely popular and some fine pieces are made with semi-precious stones and coral. Craftsmen make brooches and pendants and do enameling. The Kabyle region is especially productive as is the Saharan region where the Tuaregs make a form of pendant cross, as well as earrings and other decorative jewelry. One of the popular products on sale here is the "rose des sables" sand rose, which is a form of crystalline structure that grows below desert sands and can reach quite huge dimensions. Other handiwork includes ceramic tiles, and the making of cane and raffia items. There are all types of artisans, from the man on the street corner who will engrave aluminum pots and pans for popular use, to weavers who pass hours behind their looms producing high -quality work for export.

Techniques of production vary enormously according to region. At one time shepherds used to classify wool for carpets into 18 different categories, now it is down to eight and sometimes four. In the Northwest the wool is washed for several hours in the sea and then weighed down by rocks and left under water. Afterwards it is laid out under the sun to dry.

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Many tourists like to buy items made of coral from the reefs of the country's coasts . Although the Italian divers who used to constitute the main source have abandoned the trade because of security problems, there are still many objects available. Among the favorite objects are touareg swords, long and ornately decorated, in leather, copper and often animal horn.

Military The Armed forces of Algeria are comprised of: • • • •

The People's National Army (ANP) Algerian National Navy (MRA) Algerian Air Force (QJJ) Territorial Air Defense Force

It is the direct successor of the Armée de Libération Nationale (ALN), which fought French colonial occupation during the Algerian War of Independence (1954-62). The People's National Army consists of 127,500 members, with some 100,000 reservists. The army is under the control of the president, who also is minister of National Defense (current president is Abdelaziz Bouteflika). Defense expenditures accounted for some $2.67 billion or 3.5% of GDP. One and a half years of national military service is compulsory for males. Algeria is a leading military power in North Africa and has its force oriented toward its western (Morocco) and eastern (Libya) borders. Its primary military supplier has been the former Soviet Union, which has sold various types of sophisticated equipment under military trade

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agreements, and the People's Republic of China. Algeria has attempted, in recent years, to diversify its sources of military material. Military forces are supplemented by a 45,000-member gendarmerie or rural police force under the control of the president and 30,000-member Sûreté nationale or Metropolitan police force under the Ministry of the Interior. Recently, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated $1.5 Billion. They also agreed to return old airplanes purchased from the Former USSR. Russia is also building 2 636-type diesel submarines for Algeria.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria including Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad, the first capital of the Hammadid empire; Tipasa, a Phoenician town; and Djémila and Timgad, both Roman ruins. Two landscapes are World Heritage Sites: M'Zab Valley, a limestone valley and Tassili n'Ajjer, a mountain range. Also the Casbah of Algiers is an important citadel.

Places of Interest Tipaza (Tipasa)

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Tipasa (formerly Tefessedt, Chenoua: Bazar) is a town on the coast of Algeria, capital of the Tipasa wilaya. The modern town, founded in 1857, is remarkable chiefly for its sandy beach. Tipasa was founded by the Phoenicians. It was made a Roman military colony by the emperor Claudius, and afterwards became a municipium. The Roman city was built on three small hills which overlooked the sea. Of the houses, most of which stood on the central hill, no traces remain; but there are ruins of three churches — the Great Basilica and the Basilica Alexander on the western hill, and the Basilica of St Salsa on the eastern hill, two cemeteries, the baths, theatre, amphitheatre and nymphaeum. The line of the ramparts can be distinctly traced and at the foot of the eastern hill the remains of the ancient harbour. The basilicas are surrounded by cemeteries, which are full of coffins, all of stone and covered with mosaics. The basilica of St. Salsa, which has been excavated by Stéphane Gsell, consists of a nave and two aisles, and still contains a mosaic. The Great Basilica served for centuries as a quarry, but it is still possible to make out the plan of the building, which was divided into seven aisles. Under the foundations of the church are tombs hewn out of the solid rock. Of these one is circular, with a diameter of 18 m and space for 24 coffins. Commercially it was of considerable importance, but it was not distinguished in art or learning. Christianity was early introduced, and in the third century Tipasa was a bishop's see. Most of the inhabitants continued non-Christian until, according to the legend, Salsa, a Christian maiden, threw the head of their serpent idol into the sea, whereupon the enraged populace stoned her to death. The body, miraculously recovered from the sea, was buried, on the hill above the harbour, in a small chapel which gave place subsequently to the stately basilica. Salsa's martyrdom took place in the 4th century. In 484 the Vandal king Huneric (477-484) sent an Arian bishop to Tipasa; whereupon a large number of the inhabitants fled to Spain, while many of the remainder were cruelly persecuted. After this time the city disappears from history;

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and, whether or not its ruin was caused by the Arabs, they seem to have made no settlement there. Modern era Near Tipaza, there is Tipaza longwave transmitter, a facility for broadcasting a French speaking program on the longwave frequency 252 kHz, which can be well received in many parts of Europe. Another Roman town of the same name Another town which in Roman times was called Tipasa is in Constantine Province, 88 km (55 mi) due south of Annaba, 957 m above the sea; it is now called Tifesh. The chief ruin is that of an extensive fortress, the walls of which are 3 m thick.

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Roman Arch of Timgad

Timgad (Arabic, ‫ داقميت‬Thamugadi, called Thamugas by the Romans, was a Roman colonial town in North Africa founded by the Emperor Trajan around 100 AD. The ruins are noteworthy for being one of the best extant examples of the grid plan as used in Roman city planning. The ruins of the town are located at about 35 km from the town of Batna. The city was founded ex nihilo as a military colony, primarily as a bastion against the Berbers in the nearby Aures Mountains. It was originally populated largely by Parthian veterans of the Roman army who were granted lands in return for years in service. Located at the intersection of six roads, the city was walled but not fortified. Originally designed for a population of around 15,000, the city quickly outgrew its original specifications and spilled beyond the orthogonal grid in a more loosely-organized fashion. The original Roman grid plan is magnificently visible in the orthogonal design, highlighted by the decumanus maximus and the cardo lined by a partially-restored Corinthian colonnade. The cardo does not proceed completely through the town but instead terminates in a forum at the intersection with the decumanus. At the west end of the decumanus rises a 12 m high triumphal arch, called Trajan's Arch, which was partially restored in 1900. The arch is principally of sandstone, and is of Corinthian order with three arches, the central one

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being 11' wide. The arch is also known as the Timgad Arch. Don't get this arch confused with Trajan's arch. Trajan built many other arches known as Trajans arch. A 3,500-seat theatre is in good condition and is used for contemporary productions. The other key buildings include four thermae, a library, and basilica. The Capitoline Temple is dedicated to Jupiter and is approximately the same dimensions as the Pantheon in Rome. Nearby the capitol is a square church with a circular apse dating from the 7th Century AD. Southeast of the city is a large Byzantine citadel built in the later days of the city. The city enjoyed a peaceful existence for the first several hundred years and became a center of Christian activity starting in the 3rd Century, and a Donatist centre in the 4th Century. In the 5th Century, the city was sacked by the Vandals before falling into decline. In 535 Byzantine general Solomon found the city when he came to occupy it. In the following century, the city was briefly re-peopled as a primarily Christian city before being sacked by Berbers in the 7th Century and being abandoned. The city disappeared from history until its excavation in 1881. At the time of its founding, the area surrounding the city was a fertile agricultural area, about 1000 meters above sea level. The encroachment of the Sahara on the ruins was ironically the principal reason why the town is so well preserved. Because no new settlements were founded on the site after the 7th Century, the town was partially preserved under sand up to a depth of approximately one meter until it was excavated. Timgad was inscribed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982.

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Algerian National Parks

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Location of Algeria on African Map

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All text & images obtained from www.wikipedia.org is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Bibliography – credits & thanks Adamson, Kay. Algeria: A Study in Competing Ideologies, 1998. Ball, David W. Empires of Sand, 1999. Fuller, Graham E. Algeria: The Next Fundamentalist State? 1996. Graffenried, Michael von. Inside Algeria, 1998. Journal of Algerian Studies, 1996. Laremont, Ricardo Rene. Islam and the Politics of Resistance in Algeria 1783–1992, 2000. Malley, Robert. Call from Algeria: Third Worldism, Revolution, and the Turn to Islam, 1996. McDowall, David. Let's Visit Algeria, 1985. Morocco and Tunisia Handbook with Algeria, Libya, and Mauritania, 1995. Rogerson, Barnaby. A Traveller's History of North Africa, 1998. Stone, Martin. The Agony of Algeria, 1997. Targ Brill, Marlene. Algeria, 1990. Willis, Michael. Islamist Challenge in Algeria: A Political History, 1997. Web Sites "Algeria." U.S. Library of Congress. www.lcweb2.loc.gov CIA World Factbook2000, www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag. "Destination Algeria." Lonely Planet, 2000. www.lonelyplanet.com/dest/afr/alg Culture of Algeria http://www.everyculture.com/A-Bo/Algeria.html http://open-site.org/Kids/World_and_Countries/Africa/Algeria/ http://www.internationalspecialreports.com/archives/99/algeria/15-1.html

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