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S ELEMEN TARY SC IEN C E MAN UA L

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PR E F A C E T H I S v ol um e c ontai ns all th e i nform ation re quired fo r th e e x am i nat ion in th e Se c o nd Stage or Ad vanc ed C ours e o f B uildi ng C onstru c t io n h eld annuall y under th e dire c t io n o f th e Sc ience and A rt D e p artm e nt and form s a se quel t o “ by M r Ele m e ntary Building C onstru c t io n and D rawi ng E J Burrell wh i c h de al s wi th th e First Stage “ N o t e s o n Buil di ng It i s a red uc ed edi tion o f Par t ” C o nst ruc tion p re p ared by o m i tti ng c ertai n i m p o rtant p ortio n s wh i c h th o ugh u s e ful t o th e m ore ad vanc ed st ude nt or in prac t ice are no t re quired fo r th i s sp ec ial e x am i nat ion C hapters IX 1 and X h av e been added in an abr id g ed form fro m Par t I Th e syllab us fo r th e Se c o nd Stage o n A dvanc ed C o urs e is as follo ws Th e fi g ure s in bracke ts sho w th e page s o f th i s volum e in wh i c h th e di ffere nt subje cts are t reated ,

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t re m ay be s e t c om bini ng work do ne b y th e di fferen t — trade s th e knowledge o f th e students will be t e sted under th e follo wi ng h eads viz I st Free h and ske tch es e xpl anatory O f any de tail s o f

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c o nstruct i o n such as t h e joi nts o f iro n and wo o den struct ure s and o ther par ts requiri ng ill us t rat i o n o n an e nlarge d sc ale II V s V I V T h a V V III he e ke che C I s s s t p [ m ay be ro ughly drawn pro vi de d t hey are cle ar and capable o f b ei ng readily understo o d zu d T h e nature o f t h e st re s se s t o which th e di fferent s o f s i m ple s t r uc ture s are s ubj ec t e d p t r ll a f a s o o w s p [ “ In t h e c as e o f be am s ei t her fi xe d at o ne o r b o t h e nds o r s uppo r te d o r c o nt i nuo us t h e s tude nt sh o ul d k no w which f m a i n n h e a r e o s r s be c re s i o n d hich i n e i t t m a w a o n n o s t p p [p 5] H e sh o ul d b e acqu ai nt e d wi t h t h e be s t fo rm s fo r st ru ts t ies and be am s s uch as fl o o r j o i st s e xpo se d t o t rans ver s e s t re ss [p H e sh o uld kno w th e di fference in t h e st re ngth o f a girder carrying a give n l o ad at it s ce nt re o r uni fo rm ly dist ri but ed 3 3 [1 ] In th e o rdi nary k i nds o f wo o den o r iro n ro o f t rus se s and fram e d st ruc t ures o f a s i milar de sc ri pt i o n he sh o ul d be able t o di s t i ngui sh m e mbers in c o m pre s s i o n fro m t h o se in t e nsi o n ,

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h o ul d be able in t h e case o f a co ncentrated o r uni fo rm l o ad upo n any part o f a beam suppo rt ed at bo t h e nds t o ascert ai n t h e pro po rt i o n o f t h e lo ad t rans mi t t ed t o e ach po i nt o f s uppo r t [p n a t u T h e a a t o d re lic i n n ch r c eri t ic e o u r a a a t d s 3 pp p liarit ie s o f t h e fo llo wi ng m at erial s in o rdi nary u se fo r b ui ldi ng v i u r o e z s s p p “ Brick s o f di ffere nt ki nds in c o m m o n use [p Yo rk, Po r t l and C ae n and Bat h st o ne s [p 2 2 ] ( o r s to ne s o f a s i mil ar n de s cri pt i o n) [p a t r i e re li e hy r lic l e u m a i d u m g [p p n n a r l d n ce e r r P t a d R m a m o o n m t s o t a s p [ [p [p r c o ncre t e s o u t s h l e i ber a a m o t f t g p p [ [ p [p di fferent k inds in c o m m o n use [p cast and wro ugh t iro n le a d [p [p “ u h n o s t r ct i ve details as fo llo ws t C 4 T h e o r dinary m e th o ds o f t i m beri ng e xcavat i o ns s uch as fo r fo undat i o ns t o wall s o r fo r layi ng do wn s e wers [ p 3 9] 3 s

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P ref ace

erec t i o n o f bricklayers and nt as o ns scaffo ldi ng [p t h e c o nst r uc t i o n o f t rav ellers [p t h e use o f pile s in fo undat io ns [p h o o p iro n b o nd in brickwo rk [p f a m n i l her r i b e c o u r s e s i d i t o d r o o ng on t d ago na and pp [p co urses [p b o nd t i mber in walls and t h e o bject i o ns to it [p 7 4] “ H e sh o uld kno w h o w brick s are lai d in h o llo w wall s [p wi ndo w o r do o r o pe ni ngs wi t h s playe d j am b s [p flue s t o c i ey fi e l ce rche r a n d a s u h m a n s s p [p p [p [p abo u t 2 0 fee t s pan [ p h o w m o rt ar jo int s are fi ni she d o ff and t h e t h ick ne ss us ually all o we d t o t he m wh y [p brick s and s t o ne s o ugh t t o be we t t ed befo re bei ng laid [p “ H e sh o ul d be acquai nt e d wi t h t h e c o ns truc t i o n o f brick ru bble ashl ar walls [p s t o ne s t airs ashl ar wall s [p l n w n w e ir b h le e e e e o o d n t a o t d o d an d O s s g gg ) p ( [p kyli h r fl r s u ch a s 1 s t s fi e r o o f o o s g p [p [p 33 ] ( [p brick arches s uppo rt ed o n ro lle d o r c ast -iro n girders) [p Fo x and Barre tt s [p and De nne t t s pat e nt c o ncre t e ro o fs fl o o rs [p circ ul ar and e gg sh ape d drai ns [p 7 o f ir o n [p 9 5] o r wo o d [p fo r s pans u p t o 60 fee t ; t h e fi xi ng o f archi t rave s [p li ni ngs [p and skir t i ngs lat h pl as te r s h ut t er s t o wi ndo ws [p t o wall s [ p ro o f c o verings o f t ile s [p 1 0 2 ] and b at t e ni ng t o wall s [p and zi nc p sl at e ri dge s and hi ps [p [ “ W ri t t e n ans we rs wi ll be requ i re d t o s o m e o f t h e q ues t i o ns ’

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CO NTENTS

C HAPTER I

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STRESSES O N STRU C TU RES .

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Contents

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C HAPTER I II

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— EXC AVAT IO N S SIIO RING — SCAFF O LDIN G -PILE F O U NDA T IO N S .

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il ure o f Pil e Fo undat i o ns —Iro n Pile

Fa

s

— Pil e Engi ne s

rawi ng Pil es

38

C HA PT ER IV

BRIC KW O RK AN D

U

C O M PO ND

.

M A SO N RY

W AL I S —Eo ils tyflzcing wit /zSuperior B ricks —B rick A slzl ar '

.

.

—R noble Aslzlar

.

PREV ENT IO N o r DAM P

f

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— A zr D razns -Hm '

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r Vert ical D ampoo p f

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— Conrse H ollo w [ Valls

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rti o n h th i n po rti o n o utsi de —wi th bo ndi ng B ri k — wi t h Iro n T i es and C ram s—Buil t wi t h Co mmo n B ri ck s o nly p O pe ni ngs in H o ll o w W all s — Th ick ness o f Jo i nts — Flat F lnslz j oints — St ru k j int t hi

n

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or

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’ — — I N N E P E N T I O D A R A a é N M T I i n T B D O o n d n D o I O S B O N S a a A R V g g — — — r i k B c r n o n d l s o B P i e s B o n d o W a l o m n n e n H e r i Bo d f f g g ’ — — — n l e s a l s t A l t e w i / z l o d cu e ev a d b t n a n A S e a m s A r e l i e s I 11 t s e O g p y j — — B o n F m s Eng s d In H e ad ng Bo nd— 1 % B ck Bo nd In e

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ri li h l ih i bri ck Ri ng — In W h o l ebri k Ri ng — W i th Bo nd t h i k — In H al f— — i n n P a ir Thick A rch es b nde d t h ro ugho ut B l ck s Bo ndi ng Ri g — — — d m o e S a n B n b er R a n n B o n d h ir h L a r Ti s i Dept Of t g p g g s

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BRIC K

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i ii

— R MA SO N Y cont inued

B RIC KW O RK A N D

C

x

.

H IMN EYS — A an ;ment of F l e — F ir t Illustratio n— Seco nd Ill ustra — — — d ti n l z i n m C a i e l a c H a t l z n t CI in my Sl m C E B f y p p — l B o n d n n n h l b i k l ll s i s h m C i S h a t s W o e c E r n a W a E t e f o y f g — l l alfbri ck E te rnal \Vall Englis h Bo nd Hal f-bri ck E te rnal — \Vall Fl e m i h Bo nd— St n Clzim n y s l n e F u Re nde ri ng zim y C/ e — a o ri ng C/ z i n z P r i e C n t e t n t P g y 55 g rr

.

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~

C HAPTER V

.

TIMBER RO O FS

King

uee n Pos t

Q

and

’

It oo

Q

s

ueen

Pos t

Roof with

King

B olts

Q u een

— Roofs Roof w it h Q ueen Posts and Princess es PA RTS O F A QU EEN PO ST RO 0 F — Queen P os t s —St r aining B eam Straining Sill— Bi nde rs —H orizo nt al Raf ters Post

.

.

.

U

H APES A ND T H EIR

ROO FS O F V A RIO S S

,

Valleys — Pav ilion R oof

Co nst r

Fu

rs

uct io n o

f

ling for Roof s 30 t o 60

ya

Roof s

fl ipped Roof s—F

Trimm ing — Flat t opped Ro q/ is

A ngle

— Hi

ram

ed

Tredg old s Tables of Scant ' " — Feet span B es t For ms in Roof f or D ercn t ifl ’

: a S n p

90

C H A PTER V I

.

RO O F C O V ERING S .

Tiles —P a n T

— l r Genera Rema ks P ink of Roof s— Slat ing

l i ile s— W eath e r T ili ng— Pan T il es—It ali an T il es— Tayl o r Fo s t e r P l e — Z inc VVe lted Jo i nt s— Dri ps — C o rrugat e d Z i nc Ro o f— T h i ck n s f Z i nc — — — a o fi n F n c n fo r R o s n Z i l h i Z i r l i c G t e a t R u t s S e dges and g g H i ps 1 00 ’

’

s,

s,

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s

C HAPT ER V l I

.

Y R I NE O J

.

J

F IXI N G

W O RK —G RO U N DS—A RC H IT RAVES-SK IRT ING S

’

O IN ERS

D ADO A N D SU RBASE — D o rways T O LIN ING S T .

O

.

o

Vindow Linings

SH U T TERs

.

W i ndo ws—f ame

and

Sqflit L inings

.

— 1 ns ide S/zutt ers— Fo l di ng— Sli ding

h

Ou ts ide SI:ut t ers

SK Y L IG H TS AN D LANTERNS— Sli di ng Sas in Skylig .

ht

.

1 :3

Conte nts

xw

C HAPT ER V I II

.

STA IRS .

— r t S a i s F li gh ts f — — S t r a z fi c d R ! R S t o l e G e o m e t r i a l e D D I F FERENT FO MS O F ST A g g gg — — ir l r l C irc ular G eo me t rical i l a r c u a w e C Ne C rcu — — — — e a n d S F x n t e ril i i n o S t e s S STO N E STAIRs Stone Steps Sq uar p g p — — a s S i r S t n e t S t o a r i h l r r a n e n t s o z r t e m t o d e n A e D e Dfl l f g g g gg G eo m e t ri c al —C ircul ar— C irc ul ar N e we l —C ir cul ar G eo me t ri cal ns D imens io

o

.

.

.

'

.

W OO D EN ST AIRs —Parts of Wooden St airs—St ri ngs— W o o den Steps — — — d i s r s o n r i e W o a F m o e S t S r h l e d e w l o z n a D e N t D fl ve t o t f g g gg —O pen N ewe l —G eo m e tri cal —Brack e t ed—Handrailing —B alus ters .

1 41

C HA PT ER IX

.

R l VET IN G

.

— — — — r n F or m s t e e R t s o i v e n a C aul ki ng D e B u o m t r S t H a n m e e d Pan fl f p — C o unt ersunk—Stee l Riv e t s P roport ions of Rivets — Pit ch o f J ing—T ripl e

R IVET ED

O INTS .

—Lap— Fish -Butt — Si ngl e and

— Lap Jo i nts n o i J ts

— B

Q

r l

uad

u tt

j

up e —

oints

R

ive ti ng—Do ubl e

— C h ai n Z igzag—j oints

j

oints

in

in

Co mpres s ion

R

ivet

Ten sio n

G

ro up d e

1 70

C H A PTER X

.

H T I RO N G IRDERS G U \VRO .

Pro ort ion

p

Ro

Ro lled

n Fl a f o ges

lled Iro n ir

G de

Wrough tiron

B eams

C o mpo und

— — i P l a t e G r d er B ox Girders s rs

I 79

C HAPT ER XI. F IREPRO O F FLOO RS .

ral rk h aracteri t i cs o f g o d Firepro o f Fl o o rs —Diderent — — A o n f F o o c r s o ir e r o l ri r h d y s e m s G ir d r s a ri k f F p e t e n Fo m S d B c g — — i h o d F f ir proo Blocks Doul to nPe t o s Sys te m A rches Wh c c r s De nne t t s F irepro o f Fl o o r— H man and No rt h cro ft s Sys t em — — t e m F s w ce t s a t Syst e m F o x and Ba r ett s F l o o rs Ro dg er s Sy — — n E a s a n d s m s s i n y s S y e v S w a i n y t S d s a e m A me ican S t L t e m s y —A rch ed F l o o rs— Pugged Fl oo rs 1 83

G ene

— s C

Rem a

o

s

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e

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r

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s

Contents

xv

C HAPTER X II

.

I RO N RO O FS .

Forms

f

or

s t o p

I ron

R o o fs

Truss ed Raf t er

— Roof Trusses T r ussed

i r

i

hr

Raft e

m o d ficat o ns t e e o f — Roof s T uss w t T wo St and

ih

r

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i

and

Q

ue e n

.

ruts —T russ wi th

T

hr

—Quee n Rod Roof s—Mo di ficat i o n o f Q ueen Ro d Ro o f — — R S O F T U S R s P r z a a R n R a s O t N er Hip t O F I R O R S A T P f p

ee

Str uts

.

'

'

.

P nrlins— St r uts

Tie

and

Rods— Jo

Tension

—C o t te red Jo i nts— C o nnect i o ns

li ng — — i i n n d R S m of S t r nts Su p d g — o f Iro n Ro o fs C o nt ract Drawi ng Bo xes

C o up

s e

o s

rs

in T ie Ro d

H e ads

at

and

Fee t

[ { eads— Ta

bl e o f Scantling

s an d s of

ints

R aft e

Ro o fs

s

1 95

C HA PTER X III

.

PLASTERERS ’

W O RK .

— — s n d a L m a e e n d s t er er e C m t b t l z e l s Al at crial s use P Sand and “ ate y — M x tu es— Lat s —Lat lzing— P las ten ng — O ne C o at W o — T wo

i

C o at

r

i

h

'

— — W o rk Th ree C o at W o rk Render

dering

r

A rt Depa tm e nt , 1 888, 1 889, 1 890 , 1 89 1 and

rk — n i g G auge d W o rk— R

in Cement —Rong fi Cast —P ugg ing — A rri ses

A PPEN D IX

Sc ience

'

r

en

20 9

.

So ut h Kensi ngt o n, Exam i nat io n Papers 2 19

ADVA NC ED BU I LDI NG C O NST RUCT I O N SEV ERAL wo rks

dilfe rent t h e N o te s f o m w c h t s b e m ent o ne d t h e fo llo wmg on

hi

r

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bj

su

hi v l

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we

h as

o um e

re n ul t d in t h e preparati o n f b e n abridge d am o ng wh i ch may co

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i i r r r b r i r irb ir li i r il i r r hi r l rv y r k h i ry i ri h r h r ri il r i h rk r y r ri b k i ri l l r r i r ih r r i l r i r ri k r r i i l i r r i yl i r i h r hi ki ivil i ri r h i b il i il r r St o n y n St rai n Fa t ri \V k sh p and W ar eh o uses T h wai t f t h S c i t y f Eng i n r T ran a t i n a ne w v al uabl T dg ld C ar p nt ry ( 1 870 di t i n ) al and g r at ly H r t C E t nde d e di t i n by M and Ro f U nwin W r gh t Iro n B ri dg VVO db u y F r Pro t e t i o n f M ill W ray Appl cat i o n o f Th ry t t h e Practi c e f C o ns t ructi o n ( revi se d by S dd n) Th e Pro fe i o nal Jo urnal s m nt i o n d wo rk s and th r h a Th a i t anc de riv d fr o m th ab o v e b e n a k n wl dg d a far a p ss ibl e wh r v r t hey h av e be e n q u t ed f t h e r wi e m ad u e — f th e fi gu r wh i ch appear t b e i me t ri cal proj ec tio n t i a n Sm C ly dist r ted n o rde r t o bri ng i m p r tant po i nts into vi ew a e pur p A dam s D es gn ng C as t and \Vro ugh t I o n St uct u es D o so n and l a n s G u de t o M e as u i ng ’ Fa a n s A pp cat o n o f I o n to B u d ngs ’ ’ a u e o s H t a n c e c t u S d Bo o u s s A H t ’ Eng ne e ng Lat am s San t a ’ Lat am s W o ug t I o n B dg e s ’ L ax t o n s Exam ple s o f B u di ng C o ns t uc t o n ’ M at e so n s W o s in I o n ’ M a na d s B dges ’ oo o f Eng ne e ng F o rmu a k t w h s c e e o r t P o o s l e M ’ ’ ’ N e w and s C a pe nt e s and J o ne s A ss rs t ant ’ N c o lso n s W o ks ’ Pas ley s P ac t ca A ch te c tu e ( B c wo k ) P o ce ed ngs o f t h e Ins t i t ut e o f C vi Eng ne e s P o ce e d ng s o f t h e Ro a Ins t t ut e o f B i t s A c t e c ts ’ Eng ne e ng R an ne s C Ree d o ri I o n S p u d ng ’ ’ Seddo n s B u de s W o k ’

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B e am s s u ppo rt e d at E n ds , fi x e d at o n e o r b o t h ” “ E n ds , o r c o n t in u o u s , an d C an t il ev e rs t o kno w wh i c h P art s o f t h e B e am are in C o m pres s io n an d ” w h i ch in T e n s io n .

Su ppo rt e d B e am s BEA M SU PPO RT ED T H E C EN T R E — A

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EN D S W IT H

A

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BR EAK N G

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rectangular wo o de n beam s uppo rte d at t h e e nds whe n s ubj ec t e d t o a c o nce nt r at e d l o ad gre at er t h an it can bear bre ak s as sh o wn in Fig 1 2 IN

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beam be nds si nki ng m o st j ust ,

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and

Building Cons truct io n

A dvanced

6

fibres o f t h e upper po rt i o n o f t h e be am are crush ed and t h o se o f t he l o wer po rt i o n t o r n asunder as sh o wn o n a l arge r scale in Fig 1 3

th e

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BEA M SU PP O RT ED

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AT BO T

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EN D S A N D W IT H

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lo ad unifo rm ly dist rib ut e d o ver t h e rupture in t h e same way b ut th e fo r m o f t h e be am be fo re rupt ure wo ul d be sli gh t ly di ffere nt A BEAM SU P PO RT ED AT B O T H EN D S AN D SU BJ EC T T O A — SAFE LO AD t hat is o ne m uch sm aller t h an is require d t o .

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break cer tai n e xte nt and t h e fibre s o f th e u pper par t o f t h e b e am wil l be in c o m re s s i o n and t h o s e O f p t h e l o wer par t in t ensi o n as s h o wn in Fi here i a T s 1 4 g layer be t wee n t h e upper and t h e l o wer fibres in wh ich t here is n ei t her c o m re s s i o n no r t e ns i o n p ( Vent wh ich is c alle d t h e neutral lay er A C an t il ev e r h o we v er it may be l o ade d h as t h e upper s in t e ns i o n and t h e l o wer in fibre F 5 co m pre ssi o n as sh o wn In Fig 1 5 ,

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7

F ix e d B e am s A BEAM

e nds Fig

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F IXED AT

BO T H EN DS— t h at is,

so

fi xed t h at t h e

— be am is l o ade d is

canno t t il t up whe n t h e 1

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s

ho wn

in

6

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Such

co ndit io n o f t wo cantilevers Af and Bi carryi ng a be am f i be twee n t he m whi c h is suppo rt e d at its e nds f and i by h anging fr o m t h e e nds f and i o f t h e cant ilevers Fro m t h e fi gure it will be s ee n th at t h e upper po rt io n O f t h e be am is in t ens i o n fro m A t o f and fro m B t o i ; t h e remai nder fro m i t o f is in c o mpressio n b e am is in t h e

a

,

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ri

1 6.

er c o mpres s io n fro m A t o f and B t o i t h e ce nt ral po rtio n if being in t e nsio n It will be no t ice d t h at at t h e po i nt s i andf t h e nat ure o f t h e s t re ss in e ach cas e ch ange s ; i and f are c alle d th e points of co nt raflex ure and t heir di st ance s fro m A and B de pe nd upo n t h e fo rm o f s ec t i o n o f t h e be am and t h e di s t ribu t i o n o f t h e l o ad e t c R o ughly spe aki ng t h e po int s o f c o nt rafle xure are gene rally di stant ab o ut i o f t h e span fro m t h e ab ut me nt s Th e

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A BEAM OT

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T HE

and

A dv anced Building

8

Cons t r uction

r e d b e am f B ; and t h e po r tio ns in t ensi o n and c o m v ely are sh o wn by t h e le t t er s t t t and c c c re i re ec i n s t ss o p p A C O NT IN U O U S B EAM is o ne t h at e xt e nds wi t h o ut bre ak in i t s el f o ver t wo o r m o re spans

a s uppo t

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If th e as s o wn

h

ends are

by

fi

x ed

c c c and

th e

t t t

1

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8

.

co mpre s s i o ns and t ensi o ns will b e in Fig 1 8 re s e m bli ng t h o s e o f t wo .

,

fi xe d b eam s

FIG

1

.

9

.

i n n w re ss e s ill a s s h o w b e [f Fig 1 9 t h e arm s in e ach span bei ng like t h o s e o f a beam fi xe d at o ne end and suppo rt e d at t h e o ther ( Fig the

.

ends

are s uppo rted t h e s t

,

.

a n rr t f r e r c D t r e n o i d i a n c e i n S h G i fl er e a C y g g ” i f D t r i u t o r o r m l i s b d t r n e U t s e n e n o d a i t C e L a i v y g ’

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— B eams A

beam t hat can bear a gi ven lo ad c o nc e n t rat e d at it s ce nt re can be ar t wice t h at l o ad u ni fo r mly dis t rib u t e d o ver its le ngt h T h us if t h e beam s in Fi gs 7 8 are si m il ar and t h e o ne in Fig 7 c o ul d be ar a c o nce nt rat e d l o ad o f 40 0 lbs t h at in Fig 9 c o ul d be ar a di st rib ut e d lo ad o f 80 0 lb s o u Cantilevers — Si m ilarly a c antile ver t h at can j us t h e ar a n i v e n e e f r o m i t s o t er c an be r ice t h a t a s u n d u d a t w l o d s d e g p l o ad if it is dist ribut e d o ver it s lengt h ou

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Diflorenco in St rengt h b et ween Beams of uniform Sect ion suppo rt ed at b o t h Ends and t h ose fin d at b ot h Ends, or fi xed at one End and sup ’

d a r t e t o p

t h e ot h er

.

Building Cons t ruct ion

A dvanced

10

B e s t F o rm fo r T i e s

.

cro ss secti o n is sui t able fo r a ro d o r b ar in t ens io n whe ther it be m ade o f t i m ber o r wro ugh t iro n C as t iro n s h o ul d ne ver be us e d fo r t ie s Any

,

.

.

B e s t F o rm fo r B e am s s u b je c t t o T ran sv ers e

St res s

.

T I MBER BEAMS m ay be o f rect angul ar cro ss sect i o n unifo rm T h e deeper t hey are t h e be tt er b o t h t hro ugh o u t t heir lengt h fo r st re ngt h and s t i ffn ess IR O N G I R DER S are o f a s ec t i o n r o ughly re s e mbli ng an I t h e upper and l o wer h o ri zo nt al po r t io ns are c al led t h e fl anges and t h e uprigh t po r t i o n t h e web C ASTI RO N BEAMS sh o ul d h ave a cro ss s ect io n in which t h e l o wer fl ange t o re si s t t e ns i o n sh o ul d h ave an area fro m t hree o r fo u r t o six t i m e s as great as t h at o f t h e upper fl ange which is t o re si st c o m pre ss i o n ( se e Fig 30 sh o ws a s ec t i o n wi t h fl ange s h av i ng are as as 6 t o 1 and Fig 3 1 wi th fl ange s as 4 t o 1 .

.

,

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5

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m g h out

FIG

.

30

F IO

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And Figs 3 2 t o 3 5 Sh o w pl ir er s fo r uni fo r m ly dis t rib ut e d d g .

ans and

ele

.

31

.

i

vat o ns

Of

cast ir o n

l o ads T h e fl ange s are so m e t i m e s m ade t o di ffer in t hickne ss as in Fig 30 t h e web t aperi ng fro m o ne t o t h e o t her o r t h e m e t al m ay be o f equal t hickne ss t hro ugh o ut as in Fig 3 1 .

.

,

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F IG 32 .

F IG 33 .

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F o r ms f o r

Bes t

Figs

2 3 ,

3 3, uni fo r m wi dth , t h e .

Beams

s u b ect

j

t o Trans v ers e

St ress

I1

ele vat i o n and pl an o f a girder o f de pt h bei ng v arie d acco rdi ng to t h e stre s s

are

th e

FIG 34

.

.

PL A N

FIG

35

.

.

be b o rne Figs 3 4 35 are th e elevatio n and plan o f a f f n m d t t h w ir er o u i o r e h i d t h o f t h fl e bei rie d e a n e s n a d v g g p g t o s ui t t h e st re ss I RO N JO I ST S are o f uni fo rm sect i o n like RO LLEDFig 36 thro ugh o ut th e fl ange s bei ng s i m ilar and O f equal area ( see p PLA T E G I RDER S are al s o o f a ge neral I fo rm b uil t up wi t h a pl at e and angle iro ns ri v e t e d t o ge t her as “ 5 4 in Figs 3 7 38 o r wh ere addi t i o nal s tre ngt h is re quire d wi t h o ne o r m o re pl at es in t h e fl ange s ( o ne pl at e is s h o wn in Fig and st i ffe ne rs t o suppo r t t h e we b

to

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6

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Sect io n

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37

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38

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FIG

39

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A dvaneed

I2

E

kin d s

o rdin ary

In t h e

.

Building Cons tructio n of

T ru s s e s an d F ram e d St ru c t u re s t i o n , t o d i s t i n gu is h t h

th

o se

in T e n s i o n

T here is

e

M e m b e rs

W o o de n

Iro n R o o f o f a s im il ar d e s c rip in C o m pre s s io n fro m or

.

” .

ery sh o rt and s i m ple m e t h o d fo r ascer tai ni ng whe ther t h e m e m be rs O f a t rus s are in t e ns i o n o r c o m pre ss i o n u nder a g i ve n l o ad in any po s i t i o n T h e i nfo rm at i o n c an be e as ily O b t ai ne d b ut t h e m e t h o ds e m pl o ye d canno t be e xplai ne d in t he s e v ery sh o rt no t e s T hey are fully e x pl ai ne d in Par t IV N BC W he n t h e l o ads vary fro m t i m e t o t i m e in po si t i o n a m e mber which m ay wi th o ne po s i t i o n o f t h e l o ads be in t e ns i o n m ay wi t h ano t her po s i t i o n O f t h e l o ad h av e no st re ss U po n it o r e v e n o ne o f an o ppo s i t e nat ure T h us in an o rdi nary ki ng-po s t r o o f ( se e Fig 4 3) t h e wi nd blo wi ng fro m t h e righ t caus es a co m pre ssiv e st re ss u po n t h e s t ru t o n t h at s i de b ut no s t re ss wh at e v e r o n t h e o t her s tr u t and whe n t h e wi nd is fro m t h e le ft t h e st re ss e s o n t h e s t r ut s are j us t re v ers e d T h e s tudent c an h o wev er e as ily le arn and c arry in h is head th e nat ure o f t h e s t re sse s t o which each m e m ber o f a ro o f trus s is pract ically s ubjec te d — In Plat e III and in Fi gs 40 44 which gi v e a great m any fo rm s o f ro o f t russ e s e ach O f th e m e m be rs s h o wn in t hick li ne s is in c o m pre ss i o n and each O f t h o se s h o wn in thi n li ne s is in t e ns i o n u nder all l o ads t h at c an pract ic ally c o m e u po n t h e r o o f s uch as t h e weight o f t h e ro o f O f s no w lying upo n it and t h e pre ss ure o f t h e wi nd upo n b o t h s i de s in t ur n no v

.

,

.

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Ro o fs G e n e rally

Members

.

— G e nerally

e ki ng all rafters st r ut s st rai ni ng be am s e t c are in c o m pre s s i o n — M em bers in Tens io n All ki ng po st s q uee n po s ts and ro ds and all t ie be am s o r t ie ro ds are in t e ns i o n — M embers under Trans vers e Stres s Pri nci pal raft ers l o aded by pu rli ns o r r o o fc o veri ng al o ng t h e ir length be t wee n t h e i hich t hey a re s up po r t e d as in F ig 4 3 are s ubj e c t n t a t w o s p .

,

in Co mpres s ion

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.

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sp a

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,

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,

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St r ess es

on

R oof Tru s s es

1

3

r erse s tre ss as well as c o m pre ssi o n and t ie be am s carrying ceiling j o is t s are al so subject t o t ransv e rs e s t re ss — T I M BER R O O FS Figs 40 44 gi ve skele t o n di agrams o f o r di nary ro o f t russ e s ( s e e al so Pl at e to

t ansv

,

.

.

.

0) i F 4 ( g co m pre ss i o n,

Couple P oof

raft ers

in

are

.

F IG

.

-Th e Tied Couple R oqf and t h e t ie in Fi i i e s 1 n t n o n s i g 4 and

.

.

F IG

42 .

— R oof In t hi s, B eam

42 a

.

.

lo ng as t h e wall s stand fi rm i s a s t ru t and su po rt s t h e raft ers b ut if m a h be t e F i p ( g t h e wall s are we ak and gi ve way t h e beam beco mes a t ie as s h o wn in Fig 4 2 a Co llar

so

.

,

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.

.

F IG

.

43

F IG

.

P os t R oof ( Fi gs King-Post Roof and Q ueen-

.

44

.

.

—N o th i n g

43,

eed be sai d ab o ut t he s e e xce pt t hat in Fig 43 t h e pri nci pal raft ers bei ng l o ade d by t h e ro o f c o v ering be t wee n t h e ir po i nt s o f s uppo rt are s ubjec t t o t ransv ers e s t re s s as well as t h e c o mpress i o n upo n t he m and t h e t ie beam bei ng l o aded by t h e ceiling is al so s ubjec t t o t ransv ers e st re ss as well as t e nsi o n W h e n th e purli ns are o nly at t h e po i nts at which t h e f i a a s s uppo rt e d as in F ig 44 it is n o t s ubj ec t t o ri ci l r t er n p p transvers e s t re ss no r is t h e t ie be am whe re there is no ceili ng n

,

.

,

,

.

.

,

,

,

,

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O t h e r F ram e d St ru c t u re s

.

— T h e di agram s, Fi gs 45, 46, Trus sed B eams .

.

s

h o w by t hick

A dvanced

14

Building Cons tr uct ion

line s t h e m embers in c o m pre ssi on and in thin line s t he me mbe rs in t e ns i o n in t r uss e d beam s T hes e will be t h e sam e in nat ure th o ugh no t in am o unt ,

.

,

F IG

.

FIG

45

.

.

46

.

whe t her t h e

l o ad be di strib ute d al o ng t h e upper s urface o r c o ncent rat e d at po i nts W hen t h e l o ad is di strib ut e d be t wee n th e po i nts where t h e braci ng j o ins th e upper be am t h e l at ter is o f co urse s ubject to t r ans vers e st re ss as well as t o c o m pre s si o n B raced G irders — Fi gs 4 7 -50 are c o mm o n fo r m s o f brace d girders and t hey sh o w by t hick line s t h e m e mbers in .

,

.

.

.

,

F IG

F IG

.

.

47

.

48

.

c o m press i o n and by t hi n line s t h e m embers in t ens io n whe n t h e gir ders are carryi ng l o ads uni fo rm ly di st ribut e d al o ng t h e l o wer flange o r at th e po ints where t h e braces j o i n t h at flange Th e st re sse s will be s i m ilar in ch arac t er whe n t h e lo ad is F i n i n a a u n er fl e b t a n v u d i t i o a l a r ll h a e d b w i n t h e o 4 g 9 g pp t o be i nt ro duced as do t t e d and it will be in c o m pre ss i o n ,

,

.

.

,

,

FIG 49 .

.

F IG 50 .

.

Suc h

.

ir t n t s uspe nde d be t wee n ir er f r e q u e ly he a r e s d g abut m e nt s fro m th e e nds o f t he ir u pper fl ange s ; in such a case t h e co nst ructio n at th e ends o f t h e girder is sligh t ly l h a d i s c ll e M ir d r e e So m et me s p py g cr

.

Trans m is s ion of L oads

1

5

is pract ically t he

sam e

o f a c o n c e n t rat e d o r u n i fo rm

lo ad

di ffere nt , b ut t h e nat ure as s h o wn in th e Figure s

of

th e st ress es

.

In t h e

F

.

u po n an y

a r t o f a p

as c e rt ain t h e e ac h

b e am

C O N C ENTR AT ED

weigh t W

L

b o th

ends ,

to

” .

O AD IN

be

at

t h e lo ad t ran s m it t e d t o

i r n o f o ro t o p p

o r t o i t s f o n u pp p

ce nt rat ed

s u pp o rt e d

C ENT RE O F

a l ce d p

upo n

FIG 51

th e

B EAM

.

— If

centre

of

a co n

a

beam

.

r e d at th e e nds t hen hal f t h e weigh t is b o rne at each T h us in Fig 51 h al f t h e weigh t W is b o rne o n e ach e nd ab ut m e nt LO A D U N IFO R MLY D I STR I BU TED OVER W H O L E L EN GT H O F — If a l o ad 8 20 Fig 52 is unifo m ly di s trib ute d o ver BEAM

s uppo t

,

.

.

.

,

,

.

,

w w w w w w

F IG 52 .

w

w

.

beam t he n again h al f t h e lo ad ( in t his case 4 w) is b o rne by e ach abut m ent — W EIG HT O F T H E BEA M ITSELF Th e weigh t o f t h e beam i t sel f is l ike a unifo rm l o ad and h alf th at we igh t is support e d by each ab utment — A F L O AD AT N Y PO IN T O BEA M Th e pro po r t io n o f t h e lo ad b o rne by e ach suppo r t may avo i ding fo rmulas be fo und by t h e fo ll o wi ng rule

a

,

.

.

,

.

,

,

A dvanced

16

— I RU LE

f

both

ends ,

a

load is

Bu ilding Co ns t r uct ion

c l a e d p

th en th e proport ion

any wh ere on a

beam

t h e load borne by

f

o

orted a t

pp

su

eith er s u

or t

pp

l is eq ual to the load , multz d e h e t i b t a d i s n ce r m t s o i centre ( 31 p y f t h e s t t t h e o r u i o r t a r a d n v d i i e o d b t h t d v e l n e h t h a m e e b , y p p g y f g q

‘

between th e

orts.

pp

su

LO A D —T h us in Fig 53 th e ' ' and it is di stant 5 fro m A and 1 0 fro m B

C O N C ENTRA T ED 0 0 4

lb s

,

.

.

l o ad W

is

.

F IG 51 .

T h e pro po r t io n o f W x di stance DB

W b o rne

.

equal t o 4 0 0 lb s X 1 0 fe e t 2 663 lb s 1 5 fee t Lengt h A B T h e pro po rt i o n O f W b o rne at B is equal t o W x di s tance DA 4 0 0 lb s x 5 fee t 1 I3 5 3 S 1 5 fee t Le ngt h A B React ion —Th e pro po r ti o n O f th e l ad bo rne by each supp r t i all ed In Fig 474 t h e r ac t i n at A i h wn as t h r a t i o n at t h at uppo r t R x B a t 0 0 R a o n i c t e 0 0 R x I 4 } jg 4 LO AD U N IFO RM LY D I STRI BU T ED O VER C EN T RAL PART O F T HE A M In t hi s c as e t h e l o ad m ay be c o ns i dered E LENG T H O F A B as ac t i ng t hro ugh it s ce ntre o f grav i ty and t he n it s re ac t i o ns are fo und as in t h e cas e O f a c o nce nt rat e d l o ad at t h e ce nt re T h us if t h e l o ad were uni fo r mly spre ad o ver an eq ual dis t ance o n e ach s i de o f t he ce nt re O f th e beam as in Fig 54 t he n h al f t h e l o ad is b o rne by e ach s uppo rt Si m ilarly wh e n th e uni fo rm l o ad is m ade U p o f a num ber o f wei gh t s 4 20 t hen e ach s uppo rt t akes F at

A is .

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o

o

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54

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2 70

A dvanced Building

18

k e a s i mpl e case wi th o nly me trically as sh o wn in Fig 58 Ta

two

,

,

Cons truct ion weigh ts placed

uneq ual

-

unsym n

.

.

F IG 58 .

lyi

rul g iven abo ve h av e

App ng t h e e am , we o f th e

b

React

as

.

,

W2

9:

l react n pro duce d by lb by 30 0 O

To ta ie

io

s

.

NB .

.

res ist ance,

even

f

or

K

°

h

weig t

A

at

W , z it ] = W2 U

i l

a s ng e

at

W

1 50 '

l oo

75

:

W,

:

100

:

T3

ce nt e

B

=4 0 0 33

2 2 5 lb s .

.

r

in t h e

no t

1 50

25

I 75lb s .

Th e cons ideratio n of bending moments , moments ( 3f s h earing s t resses , etc , and calculatio ns for s treng t h , .

th e

s t beam s , does e l p

sim

not

f

orm a

r t a p

qf

th is Co urse,

in P art I V N B C

entered u on

but is

fo r

e

i o n pro duced by W

.

p

.

.

.

.

C HA PTER

II

.

M A TE R IA LS .

Subjects

by S l a b u s a n n l i d b r a t h s e c t e h a e s , y ( pg ) wh ich th ey are t reated upon

required

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.

Th e nat ure, applicat io n, and ch aract en st ic pecu liarit ies q/t h e f ollo wing mat erials in o rdinary use f o r b uilding pu rpos es , v iz B rt chs of difl r ent hm ds in com m o n use [p 1 9] Yor h , Po rt land, Ca m, a nd B ath S t o nes [p 2 2 ] ( or s t o ne s of a s i m ilar descript io n) [p 2 2 ] r a n i t e g r e li m e [ d r h u u a i i l c l m e r n m a t l n R o n a P o d a d [p y [p p p r t ars [ cemen t s [ 2 m o co r e s n c t h e r o ut [ 2 a s l t e a p [p 2 p g p p m b t er qf dr ere nt h ind: in com mon use [ i c s w r h a t a n d o u [p i p g t d i ron [ l a e [p p ’

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T H I S ch apt er will c o nt ai n o nly so m uch i nfo rm at io n abo ut t h e m at eri al s used in t h e c o ns truc t i o n o f b uil di ngs as is

M aterials

19

ece ssary t o m ee t t h e ab o ve require me nts o f t h e Sec o nd Stage Full info rm at i o n o n t h e subject is gi ven o r Advance d C o urs e in Par t III N B C

n

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BRIC KS .

— M anuf ac t u re O rdinary b uil di ng bricks are m ade o f cl ay o r o t her ear t h s s ubjec t e d t o vari o us pr o ce ss e s, such as cle ari ng fro m s to ne s, gri nding if nece ssary, and m ix i ng in s o m e c as e s T he s e vary so m e wh at acc o rding t o l o cal prac t ice , wi t h ch al k i nflue nce d by t h e nature o f th e m at erial T h e cl ay is fo rm e d, .

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.

ndi t i o n t o t h e requ ire d l ic c a s t o p drie d and t he n s h ape by h and in m o ul ds o r by m achi n e s b urnt ei ther in h ilus ( large o vens) o r clamps ( pile s o f th e drie d b rick s t he m s elv e s) M AD E B R IC KS h ave a f rog o r i nde ntat i o n o n o ne H A N Ds i de which li gh t e ns t h e brick and fo rm s a key fo r t h e m o rtar M A C H I N E MAD E BR I C KS are ge nerally de nser and heav ier t h an t h o s e m ade by h and In so m e m achi ne s t h e brick s are — c u t O fi by a wire t hey t he n h ave n o fro g in o t her s t h e cl ay is pre s se d whe n n e arly dry in a m o ul d and t he s e ge nerally have a fro g and are O ft e n pierce d t hro ugh wi t h h o le s t o make t he m ligh t er — C l as s ifi c at i o n O f E ri ck a Thi s di ffers in vario us l o cal i t ie s b ut in s o m e b ric kfi elds near Lo ndo n t here are t hree s se s a a e er l cl n g chalk Malms in which th e clay is m ix e d wi th ab o ut and C i nders Was h ed in which less ch al k is adde d to t h e clay Common in which no ch alk is adde d divi de d i nt o s e veral vari e t i es t h e pri nci pal o f wh ich T h ese cl as s es a

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Cu tt ers o r R u bbers o f e e n t e xt u e and e s o ft , so t at t e can b e face c ut and ru b ed t o ac c u at e s ape s and t o a s m o o t F acing Pav io rs , a d-u nt m a m c s O f go o d sh ape and co o u , used fo r fac ng s upe o wo k H ard Pav iors are m o e u nt , s g t e m s e d, and used fo r co p ngs, s upe o fac ng , e t c Stoch s , go o d a d c s , us ed e ne rally fo r o d na o o d w o g G rizzles and P lace B ri ch s , wh ic are wea , unde -u rnt , nfer o ic s c s on w c t h e a n h as fa e n w e n t e Gh ayl are we e h o t , m a ng t e m fu o f c ac s and use e ss c s v trified and run t o e th e B urrs are umps O f o e -u nt g

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Cons truct ion

Advanced B u ilding

20

MACH I N E MADE BR I C KS m ay be classe d as P ressed i e r W cut, o f e ach o f which t here are s everal variet ie s

0r

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— Th e y B ric k s

C h arac t e ri s t i c s o f go o d o rdin ary s h o ul d be well b urnt , h ard, ri nging well whe n s t r uck t o ge t h e r, free fro m crack s and l um ps, e specially lumps o f lim e, regul ar in s hape and un ifo rm in s ize , no t ab so rbi ng m o re t h an ao f t h eir wei gh t o f wat er — Size and W e igh t T hi s .

rie s ; b ut near Lo ndo n O rdi nary brick s are ab o ut 8 % i nche s l o ng 4 } i nche s bro ad and 2 % i nche s t hick and wei gh ab o ut 7 lb s e ach va

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bri ck wo rk th e l ength o f e a h bri ck sho u ld j i br h by t h e t h i kness o f a m o r tar j i nt — V arie t ie s O f B ri c k s Bes i de s t h e o rdinary brick s abo v e de scribe d t here are i nnum erable varie t ie s in t h e marke t t h e mo s t i m po rtant o f which are W H ITE BRIC KS m ade fro m pe culi ar c l ays so met i me wi t h t h e addi t io n o f a l arg pro po r t i o n O f c h alk Th e bes t k n wn a e t h e Sufl lh and B an bri ks li Gault B i h are fro m t h e clay b t ween t h e uppe r and l we r gr eens and T h e y are wh i t e and g e ne rally v ry d nse and h avy b e i ng t o so m e e t n t ligh t ned by a large fro g o r by h l es t h ro ugh t h e ir t h i knes STA F FO RD SH I RE B LU E B RIC KS a e m ade fr m t h e l o cal c l ay wh ich nt ai n o me 1 0 pe ce nt f ide o f iro n co nve r ted unde r great heat i nt t h e bl ac k i de They ar f a dark blu c l o ur o r nearly bla k Th y have an no rm us e s tan e and c mpressio n are v ery hard n n-po r u v ry durabl e and m uch u e d fo r pavi ng co pi ng etc F A REHA M RED BRIC KS are made near Po rt s mo ut h and a e m uch used fo supe ri r face wo rk EN A M ELL ED B RIC KS h ave a whit e ch i nalik e surface and a e used fo r lavat ri dairi e e t D U TC H C LINKERS are ve ry small wellb urnt hard bri cks u ed f r rder

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PU RP SEMAD E BRIC KS may b e o t a ne d o f e e o s s e f o a k m n d n n a c s o o n o d t n s a e u c i n u t t m a o c u , , p g b u t weat e m uc e t te , e ng as a u e o f e t t e m at e a ” “ Fi re Bricks are m ade f o m in t h e co a fi re c a s , fo und ge ne a m eas u es T e are capa e o f w t s t and ng e a t u es , and e m h t e p g are m uc used fo r n ng fu naces , e t c Terra Cott a is m ade f o m m x t u e s O f pecu a c a s w t g o und g ass, o t t u f a c t u e b t i s d e a n m a u n so m e n t m es a n d i s t i s o I t w a t a , , p p p m il Ch used fo r ui d ng , is e a d, s t o ng , and du a e in any at m o spl‘e re Pipes and Clay Gou l d — T ese are nnum e a e in fo m, b ut it is mpo tant t o d s t ngu s t e y are m ade c e t wee n t h e mat e a O f w ware is made f o m O d na c a s, weak, and u na e t o e s st

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STO N E

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B u ildin g St o n e — Sto ne is differe nt de s cri pt i o ns and q ualit ie s, b ut th e of

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chie f ch aract eri st ic s require d in a go o d st o ne fo r b uil ding are as fo ll o ws DU RABI L I TY which depe nds chiefly u po n che m ic al c o m s i t i o n ; fo r a l arge pro po r t i o n o f li m e will re nder th e s t o ne o p — a s t o ne t h at is u nfi t t o re si s t t h e aci d at mo sphere o f t o wns ” we ath e r b adly The no t durable o ut o f do o rs is sai d t o durabili t y is h o we ver t o s o m e e x t e nt i nfl ue nce d by it s PH YSI C AL ST R U CT U R E t h us marble is m o re durable t h an c h alk H A RDN ESS ( fo r quo i ns t h o ugh che m ical ly t h e sam e FAC I L I T Y FO R W O RKING ( fo r carvi ngs and A PP EA RA N C E h av e so m et i m e s t o be co nsi dere d C l as s ifi c at io n o f B u ildin g St on e s may be t ake n as fo ll o ws G rani t e s and o th er i gne o us r o c ks ,

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co mpo se d o f quartz felspar and m ica It is as a rule very durable and h ard t o wo rk and is u s e d fo r he avy e ngineeri ng struc t ure s and fo r m ass iv e b uildi ngs al so in t h e par t s o f o rdi nary b uil dings such as st eps t h at u ndergo M ica and so m e ki nds o f fels par are liable t o m o st wear decay b u t q uar tz is al way s h ard and durable ; t here fo re th e m o re quart z a grani t e c o nt ai ns t h e bet t er s t Th e be kno wn grani t e s are fo und in Sc o t l and and C o rnwall Sl at e s fo r ro o fi ng are well k no wn as regards appe arance and n eed no t be de s cribe d T hey sh o ul d be fi ner i e n a d g h ard wi t h a m e t allic ri ng no t fri able at t h e e dge s t o ugh s o as no t t o s pli nt er whe n o ut o r h o le d ; and no nabs o rpt i ve Sl ate is al so use d in Th e best varie t ies c o me fr o m Wale s G ranit e is

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Building Cons tr uct ion

A dvanced

22

l b o f fro m o ne t o t hree i nches t hick fo r ci sterns sills skir t i ngs landi ngs e t c San ds t o n e s are fo und in gre at varie ty They co ns i s t o f gr ai ns o f sand hel d t o ge t her by ce m e nt i ng m at eri al upo n t h e nat ure o f which l att er de pe nds t heir durabilit y T h e bes t k no wn sandst o ne s are as fo ll o ws — D E S T h es e h av e a c o ars e gri t a e v e ry s t r o ng Y O R KSH I RE SAN STO N k f w b a i n d i n l a r bl a li h t br n i s h w h i l r n n o co u d a t a a b e t e e c g g Th e b es t kno wn quarri es a e m h u d fo r h e avy ng i ne i ng w rk

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B ram ley F all, B radfo rd, Sco tg at e A s h , e t c , e t c MA N SF I ELD ST O N E is fo und in N o t t ng am s e in t wo col o u s , re d adapt e d fo r as a wo k c o um ns , e t c and w te , and is we C RA IG LEIT H STO N E, fo und nea Ed n u g , is t h e m o st du a e sand fo r any go o d m aso n s t o ne in th e c o unt , and use fu .

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i h h ir r hi ll hl r r l r i b r h r bl ry l ry L im e s t o n e s c o ns i st o f grai ns o f carb o nat e o f lim e cem ent e d t o get her by t h e same sub stance o r by t h e sam e m i xed wi th silica T hey vary gre at ly in t ex t ure bei ng ei t her g ranular wi t h m uch i n s ize compact no t r i or h i varyi ng n n s s a w o g g s n r i a g Th e pri ncipal varie t ie s are — E A e n H T N n v g rai ned co mparat ively so ft wh it e t n s m BA T S O It is o b t ai nabl e in larg bl o ks and m u h u e d f O f it weat h rs b adly such as B T h e re a e ev e ral q uarri e m o ul ding and c arv e d wo rk C o m b e Co r h am e t — N TO E N R L A D S Se v eral di st i nct ki nd a f und in th e q uarri e PO T d in R a h and Wh it bed R a h a e f l l f h ll a t and n t m h rdinary b uildi ng Wh it b d and B a b d k no wn al o as B t bed a m s t val uabl e wh i te b uil di ng s t o nes o f e ven t t ure and durabl in m s t Bo t h d s ri pt i n prese nt th e am e appearance b ut \Vh it be d o i t i o ns p th r Is h arde r t o wo rk and m o re dur abl e t h an t h e A G i n a d a t n a o e t R s h r b rb n y r I S H a m c s a s o n r t KENT e ve g p y di ffi c ul t t w rk and u e d c h i efly f r bbl Y ELLOW M A N SFIELD ST O N E is a m agn i an li m est o ne c m p d n a n m i f n a d n l ir ly rb f i a li n v r i t t c a o a t e o m es a n d a e e n a n e a m d g g s to ne fi t fo r a h l ar and arvi ng C A EN ST O N E i f u nd in N r m andy b ut m u h u ed in t h is o unt ry It is o f a ream c l o ur v e ry s o ft wh en j us t qu ar i e d e a ily wo rk e d and carv d b ut weat h e rs b adly I arble is a v e ry dense co m pact f rm f li m to n t h at will t ak e a f i ul ly m ark e d and a e us ed c h ie fly fo o li h v ri i r b a t so m e s a e u a t e e e ; p dec rative purpo se s — Th e i m po rt ance o f placing s t o ne s in wall s N at u ral B e d — wi t h t heir nat ural be ds i e t h e l ayers in wh i c h t hey were — z a h n t a l s o o s n n e l ic lly e o i t e d h ri bee e i e a d m t o o d i n o n p g g ,

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Cements

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cornice s o r o v erhangi ng wo rk th e s h o uld be vert ical and at ri gh t angle s t o t h e fac e

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LIM ES AND C EM ENTS, M O RTA R, G RO U T, C O NCRETE, ET C

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LIME

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d u n n m u d s r ce by b r i li e e n kil i o t o n i a n s p g , Q t h e c arb o nic acid is dri ve n o ff, and t h e re sul t is quickli m e Sl aki n g is efle ct ed by t h o ro ughly wet t i ng a quickli m e and c o vering it up It t he n swells, beco m es h o t , give s o ut was o f s te am , and fall s t o po wder, which is c alle d s lacker! lime T h e s l aki ng pro ce ss is very v io le nt wi th rich li m e s, le ss s o wit h po o r li me s , and v ery s li gh t in t h e case o f hy draulic u ic kl im e

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cem ent is made wi th wat er i nt o a pat and e xpo se d t o t h e air it will harden less o r m o re acc o rdi ng t o it s quali ty unt il in m o st c as e s it bec o mes q ui te hard t hro ugh o ut its b ulk Wi t h hydraulic li mes and ce m e nts t h e h arde ni ng will t ake place e ve n be t t er if t h e pat is pl ace d under wat er Pure R i ch , o r F at L im e is t h at pro duce d fro m pure limes t o nes such as marble o r chalk c o ntai ni ng no thi ng b ut c arbo nat e o f li m e Such a li m e slake s furi o usly b ut a pat m ade fro m it wil l ne ver t ho ro ughly se t o r h arde n e v en in t h e air and if placed under wat er it will s im ply dis so l ve away R ich li m e s canno t t here fo re m ake goo d m o rt ar o r c o ncre t e b ut are t h e be st fo r whit e washi ng and s ani t ary purpo se s Po o r L im e is fro m li m e s t o ne c o nt ai ni ng use le ss i m puri t ie s and it s h are s all t h e de fec ts o f rich li m e s H y drau li c L im e s are pro duce d fro m li m e s t o ne s whi ch c o ntai n fro m 5 t o 3 0 per ce nt o f cl ay in a ec li r r a f u o m p T h e y slake wi t h m o re o r le s s di ffic ul ty b ut will s e t bec o mi ng quit e hard in air o r under wat er and are t here fo re adapt e d fo r m ak ing go o d mo rt ar and c o ncre t e a

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be st s eas o ne d and th e sap dri e d up by bei ng s tacke d under c ov er wit h t h e air circ ulat in g T here are m e t h o ds o f s easo ni ng by h o t air freely ro u nd it al so by b o ili ng and st e aming and o t her s peci al pro ce ss e s which c anno t here be describe d — When t i mber is in po si t i o ns where it is alte rnat el y D e c ay wet and dry o r no t well v e nt il at ed it so o n decays t h e sap wo o d being ge nerally t h e first afle ct e d D ry P ot take s place in c o nfined po sit io ns A fungus eat s i nt o t h e t i mber m ake s it ch ange co lo ur smell di sagreeably , beco m e bri tt le and e ve ntually re duces t h e fibre s t o po wder Wet R ot o cc urs in t h e gro wing t ree and in po si t io ns where t h e gase s ge nerat ed can e s cape — T h e be s t m e t h o d o f pre servi ng t i mber Pre s e rv at io n fro m decay is t o h av e it t h o ro ughly se aso ned and pl aced in well ve nt ilat e d po sit i o ns ,

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C o ppe r is fo und in t h e m etallic s tat e o

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co l o ur no t e asily o xi di zed very malleable and h as a gre at er t e ns ile s t re ngt h t h an any m e tal e xcept wr o ugh t iro n and s t eel It is us e d by t h e b uil der chiefly fo r sl at e nail s bell wire s and ligh t ning c o nduct o r s al so fo r do wel s b o l t s and fas t e ni ngs in po s i t i o ns where iro n wo ul d be c o rro de d o r rust e d and s o m e t i me s fo r c o veri ng ro o fs It is an e x t re m ely so ft and L e ad is re duce d fro m o re s — very m alleable fus ible he avy and v ery want i n m a l ic e l t t s a p g in t enaci ty and el as t ici ty It is us e d fo r c o veri ng flat ro o fs fo r flas h ings pi pe s beddi ng girders e t c — A i E D u a s d i s t o H L be rch e r E E T n f t t o m w c a s s S o or p bo t h are described acco rdi ng t o t heir super fici al m illed T hus 7 lb l ead m eans le ad wei ghi ng 7 lbs per wei gh t s quare fo o t Cas t L ead is t hicker he avier and wi t h a h arder s urface t u t u t o a w a h ille le a d b s bjec fl s n d s a n d d h o le s and o f t an m irregular thickne ss It is cast in sheets fro m 1 6 t o 1 8 fe e t l o ng and 6 feet wi de M illed Lead is ro lle d o ut t h inner t h an t h e o t her is m o re uni fo rm in t h ick ne s s bends e as ily and m ake s ne at er wo rk b ut is no t so durab le as cast le ad It is

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A p o ns R o o fs F at s G ut t e s

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ery large di ame ter m ay b e m ade o ut o f s hee t le ad b ut sm aller o ne s s h o ul d be drawn It is eas ily Z in c is o b t ai ne d fro m o re s o f t h e m e tal fus ible m alleable whe n pure so o n de stro ye d by air c o nt ai ni ng aci d It is used by t he b uil der fo r r o o f c o veri ngs gutt ers, LEAD PIPES

of v

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,

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A dvaneed

8 3

Building Cons truction

cist erns chi m ney po ts slat e nails o r name nts and fo r co vering ro m r us t i ng Iro n ( gal vani zi ng) t o kee f i t p G o o d s hee t zinc is o f u ni fo rm c o l o ur t o ugh easily be n t b ack wards and fo rwards wi t h o ut crac ki ng Th e gauges use d fo r r o o fs are m e nt i o ne d at p r I r T in is us e d fo r li ni ng le ad pi pe s and fo r s m all gas t ubi ng It is v ery s o ft we ak and malle able and m o re e asily fus ibl e t h an any o t her m e tal ,

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C HA PT ER

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E X CA VA TI ON S, SH OR I N G , SCA FF OL D IN G, PILE B O UN D A Tl O/VS .

Subjects

by S a u ll b s a n d n r i b a c k e t s t l z e a e s , y ( ) pg wlziclc tlzey are t reated upon

req uired

at

.

Th e

ordinary

walls and

or

met / t ods of t imbering ex cav at io ns , s u e/ c as f or f ou ndatio ns t o ’ l a i n d n se w r s rect io n o r o w e l b r b e e i c kl a er s y g [p f f y

mas ons

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use o

EXC A VA T IO N

i i ons [ l es i n u n d a t o p f p

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cle ari ng and le velli ng t h e si te fo r ext e nsiv e b uil dings v ery large q uant i t ie s o f e art h m ay h av e t o be re m o ve d fro m o ne s po t t o ano t he r fo r which special arrang e m e nt s wo ul d be ne c e s Such arrangem ent s h o we ver are beyo nd t h e pro v i nce sary o f t he s e N o t e s in which it is pr o po s e d t o c o ns i de r o nly t h e excavat io ns re q u ire d fo r t h e fo undat i o ns o f bu ildings t o be l ce d u po n a s i t e which r equire s no s peci al pre parat i o n in t h e a p way o f le velli ng In all e xc av at i o ns fo r fo undat i o ns t h e s o li d gro und at t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t re nche s sh o ul d be le ft t o t h e require d le vel s — and t e m po rary drai ns s h o ul d no t m ade up wi t h l o o se e ar t h be c ut t o carry o ff t h e rai n t h at may fall duri ng t h e pro gress o f t h e wo rk In e x cavat i ng t re nche s fo r brick o r s t o ne fo o t i ngs an e xtra wi dt h o f ab o ut 6 i nche s o n e ach Si de is ge nerally all o we d at th e b o t t o m o f t h e t re nch t o gi ve t h e m e n r o o m t o b uil d ; bu t IN

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Slco ring whe n

39

c o ncret e is t o be use d th e excavat i o ns sh o uld be e xac t wi dt h require d fo r t h e b ed o f co ncre t e i t sel f ,

o f th e

.

SH O RING A N D ST RU TT IN G

Whe n t re nche s h av e

.

be dug in lo o se gro und it is nece ssary t o suppo rt t h e s i de s o f t h e e xcavat i o n by t i m beri ng and s h o ri ng I n m oderately fi rm g round aft er a de pt h o f 3 o r 4 fe e t “ h as bee n e xc avat e d a few r o ugh pl ank s o r paling boards P P ( Fig 7 5) are pl ace d at i nt er val s v aryi ng wi th t h e nat ure to

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1

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75

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i t h e s i de s o f t h e t re nch and ke pt up by j am mi ng o r we dgi ng in be t ween t hem st rut s ( S) o f ro ugh s cant li ng fro m 4 t o 6 i n che s s quare I n loos er g ro und it is nece ssary t o pl ace t h e po li ng b o ards clo s er t o ge ther and s o suppo rt t he m ( Fig 7 6) by 3 inch pl ank s “ W W cal le d walings Th e st rut s m us t be m ade t hick in n r t i n an s u u h r o t h w i h f t h re n ch r e s re o o t o o t d t e o t e d e p p p p t he m and t heir di s t ance apar t will de pe n d upo n t h e s tre ngt h o f t h e walings and t h e nat u re o f t h e s o il T h e po li ng b o ards P P are o ft e n in sh o r t le ngth s o f ab o ut f t s h f o a t n s x a o a ee t h re er e t h a be e c v t e d be re o a t d t o 3 g p t h ey c an be i ns ert e d I n very loose soils such as runni ng sands o r slippi ng cl ay s, it o f the

so

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i de s

Bu ilding Cons truction wo ul d fall in if

an

at t e mpt was made

FIG 7 6 .

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e xcavate t h e t re nche s t o a de pt h o f 3 o r 4 fee t be fo re s uppo r t ing th e m ( Fig T o pre ve nt t hi s t h e po li ng b o ards are s o m e t i me s ut in h o ri p z o n t a l l y— a s

to

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slz eet ing

”

—

o ne

i e A o n o r i t n i che s p 9 o r a fo o t dee p is e x cavat e d and at o n c e s u p o t d r e by l k n a s p p a d l ce lo ngit u p dinally o n b o t h Side s and ke pt r a a t b s r t t u s p y F 77 t h e n an o t h e r de pth o f 9 i nche s is t ake n o ut and ano t her plank placed o n e ach s i de bel o w t h o s e already in po si t i o n and t he se last also When fi ve o r six plank s have b een thus inserted o n st r utt e d at

a

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fo ur

or

Building Cozzs lr uctzwz '

c ldb o ar ds are l aid acro ss t h e put bricklayer stands and h is m aterial s are

s affo

l o gs ; o n t hese th e de po si t e d T h e m at eri al s are ei ther c arrie d up l adders in h o ds o r h o i s ted by m e ans o f a pulley o r wi ndlass and ro pe In m any case s a plat fo rm fo r l andi ng m at eri al s is erec t e d in t h e same way as t h e s caffo l d and cl o se t o it .

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high t hat it c an b arely be reache d a f f r h s c l d b o ards ano t he r ro w o f ledge rs is lashed t o o f om t e h f s t h e s tandar ds re sh put l o g l ai d and t e s c affo l d b o ards are rai s ed t o t h e ne w lev el T h e le dger s and put lo gs us e d at t h e l o wer le v el s are le ft in t ff d n a h i f t an i i s e y e s c a o l d h e b il d i n be e y s t t d u r o t o o v p g high and in an e xpo sed situati o n t h e s caffo ldi ng must be the

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i ffe ne d by lashi ng lo ng po le s called braces B B diago nal ly acr o s s t h e o ut s i de o f t h e s tandards and le dgers C are m us t be take n no t t o l o ad a s caffo l d t o o h e avily o th e r wi se t h e put lo gs will inj ure t h e gree n wo rk upo n which t hey re st Th e s caffo l d fo r th e i ns i de o f t h e brick o r r ubble wall s o f b uildings so me t i mes c o ns is t s m e rely o f planks laid acro s s t h e j o i s ts o f t h e di fferent flo o rs which are place d in po si t i o n fo r t h e purpo se ; whe n t h e walli ng h as ri s e n m o re t h an 5 fee t ab o v e a flo o r a fre sh t ier o f pl ank s is pro vi de d s uppo rt e d o n t re st le s e m pty c ask s o r any thi ng t h at m ay be available W he n t here are n o fl o o rs o n t h e i nsi de o f t h e wall th e s c affo l d t he n is c o nst r uc t e d in t h e s am e way as fo r t h e o ut s i de — M as o n s Sc aflo l d s Scaffo lding fo r ashlar wall s o f which t h e st o ne s c an be li ft e d wi t h o ut m achinery are fo r me d b u t as pu t l o gs c anno t c o n wi t h st andards and le dgers ve nient ly be i nse r t e d in t h e face o f t h e m as o nry a ro w o f si de s o f t h e wall be t wee n which t h e s t andar ds is us e d o n h s t a t s a re a o t s f f n l l he d h c l i e irely i e o s e a d u t o i s n t n d g g p e e n t o f t h e b uil di ng n d p — i t u t a u i l d n a n w z l z o S c l s I s m a o e r c ry B o t s h n t o f t u e o g fl p h o us e s m any s t o rie s in heigh t are erec t e d wi th o ut s caffo l ds at all t h e wo rk bei ng all do ne fro m t h e i ns i de and t h e m e n suppo rt e d o nly by t e mpo rary pl at fo rms fo rme d o n t h e di ffere nt fl o o rs in succe s s i o n — Scaf ld m ad f m sq uar h av e b n S c a fl o l B ant ling Special d t i m b r m i g h t e v e ntually b e nd r t h d in t h u po s i t i n t h at t h us d b il ding t h at co wo ul d b sav d and that th e scaff ldi ng c uld b e m r d w n i kly r d n t a k n d o t a e q advant age s h av e no t be n f und t it Pra t i ally ho we v e r t h caff l di ng is h i gh ir n k t s fo uni t i ng t h l ng t h and wh r t h f t h e r e pe ns iv and awk ward o nt riv an e h av b n f und s an t li ng an d t h at t h e sy t m m ay b e n i d r d a fail ure ary ne S afl ld m ade fro m pi ce f flat t im b r Gab deal b lt d t o g e th r ros -braced a e m t im u d in S t land Th ir g n ral and w ll n t ti n will be unders too d fr o m F ig 7 9 80 wh i ch a e tak n fr o m an am pl e ac t ual — G an t ri e a Whe n th e s t o ne s t o be lift e d are v ery heav y s caffo lds o f po le s l ashe d wi t h co r ds wo ul d no t be safe n o r c o ul d t hey carry t h e nec es sary m ach i nery fo r lift i ng t h e s t o ne s st

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44

ch

Building Co ns t ruct ion “

”

case a stagi ng o r gantry is erec ted o f b al k “ t i mber suppo r ti ng a t ram way u po n which runs a t rav eller e xt endi ng acro ss t h e gant ry at righ t angle s t o th e direc t io n o f it s le ngth and c o nsi st i ng o f a s tage o n wheels al o ng which m o ve s a t r uck c arryi ng a do uble purch as e crab A s t h e s tage o r t raveller c an m o ve any where in t h e dire c t i o n o f t h e le ngt h o f t h e sc affo l d and t h e t ruck c an mo ve alo n g In

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r eller acro ss t h e width o f t h e gant ry it is evi de nt t h at t h e crab c an be bro ugh t v er tically o v er any po i nt lyi ng wi thi n t h e gant ry T h e t raveller c o nsi st s o f t wo t r usse d be am s fi xe d parallel t o o ne ano t her and ab o ut 4 o r 5 fee t apar t At each e nd t h e beams are uni t e d by a c arri age c o ntai ni ng which run al o ng th e rail s fi x e d upo n t h e a pair o f wheel s upper be am s o r s ill s o f t h e gant ry T h e t raveller is wo rke d alo ng by t urni ng t liese wheel s wh ich is e ffec t e d by machi nery wo rke d ei ther fro m th e pl at t h e t av

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45 fo r m

ryi ng

car

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t av

th e

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,

or

b y m e n stat io ne d at t h e

e nds

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.

T h e t ruck

carryi ng th e crab is m o ve d alo ng o n th e rail s o f t rav eller acro ss t h e n a ry by chi ery t m n a i n o ts l t a g p

th e

,

,

Ft o 8 r —G an h y .

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am f

t ravelle r

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er wheel s o f trav ellers m o ving o n a circ ul ar gant ry are made wit h v ery bro ad t ire s so t h at t hey may no t jam upo n t h e rail Fig 8 1 i a l o ngi t udi nal vi w f a gant ry co nst ruct ed f balk t i mbe s Th e uprigh t U U a e pl ac d fr m 1 0 t 2 0 fee t apart a c rdi ng t t h e ize f t i mb r avail abl e and t h ap ill runn rs R R a r t e d pp by t rut S S wh i ch but t agai n t a t rai ni ng pi ece SP and res t upo n c l at C Co rbel pi e ces are o ft e n i n t r o duce d as sh o wn at C P Th e

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T h e s t anda ds o r upr g ts at t h e e nd o f th e gant s o u d b e s t utt e d as s o wn, and so s o u d e e s t anda d b e su o n t h e o u t s de o d t u t s t e s pp t o p e e nt at e a m o e m e n t In o de t o e e p th e t m e as pe fec t as poss o ts s o u d b e e ” “ a ks un t e d a o de d, and t h e s t aps o r do g s T h e at te are p e ce s o f o n a o u t 2 nc s q ua e , t h e e n ds o f w c are e ng s h t u ned do wn and po nt e d a o d t e e d n i n s d e o s t o a w i t h e s a p t m e s t o ge t e w e n d o me en

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h appe ns t hat a li ne o f rail way can be b ro ugh t fro m t h e s t o neyard ri gh t u nder t h e gant ry as sh o wn in wh ich c as e t h e s t o ne c an b e li ft e d o ff th e t r ucks by th e traveller and s e t at o nce In o m e cas e t h e gant ry i o mi t t ed and t h e t r av ll e r h a h i gh l eg at wi t h wh l at t h ir fe t wh i h r n u p n rail l ai d p n t h it nd n n f h r i t h l a t e d r a v ll r a h r t r h n t h o t o o t m es e e t e e e t a m e o u n d g g at t h o t h e r t o s ui t t h e le v e l o f t h g r nd ,

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in

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i me s used fo r li ft i ng th e m at erial s require d in b uil ding large h o use s as well as o ther st ru c t ure s T h e crane is pl ace d o n a pl at fo rm in a high and ce nt ral i i h c an re ach t h e s t o ne s o r o t her m at e ri al s t i t a s o t n o s o t p wh ere t hey are depo si t e d and al s o by revo l vi ng t h e jib o r t

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,

,

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,

P ile F o undat ion:

47

de rrick , prace th e m where t hey are requ ire d in t h e wo rk T h e derrick c an be rai se d o r l o were d as well as rev o lved ; t hi s e nables t h e lengt h o f its reach t o be varied so t hat m at erials .

c an

be picke d up o r set

do wn

o n any s po t

wi t hi n it s

range

.

PILES A N D PILE FO U N DA T IO N S .

T im b e r Pil e s m ay be m ade o f elm , l arch , fir, pi t ch pi ne , heart b eech , o ak, t eak, o r greenT h e st raigh t e s t grai ne d t i m ber sh o uld be selec te d, t h e bark rem o ved, and any ro ugh pro ject i o ns smo o t he d o ff ; all large .

h o ul d be av o ide d and diago nal k no t s e speci ally are a s o urce o f danger as a pile is v ery likely t o be br o ke n o ff at t h e po i nt where t hey o cc ur Pile s sh o ul d if po ss ible be o f wh o le t i m bers and dri ve n wit h t h e b u t t o r nat ural lo wer e nd do wnwards bec aus e t hat e nd is o f t h e h arde st wo o d c o ntai ni ng cl o s er annual ri ngs t h an So m e ti m e s h o we ver whe n t h e pile t aper s it m ay t h e o t her b e driv e n wi t h t h e nar ro w e nd do wnwards s o as t o ge t a be tt er grip o f t h e gro und Th e he ad o f t h e pile sh o ul d be b o und r o u nd wi t h a wro ugh t-iro n h 0 0 p t o pre ve nt it Spli tt i ng whe n dri v e n T h e l o wer e nd sh o ul d be po i nt e d and if it h as t o e nc o u nt er s t o ny o r h ard gro und sh o ul d be sh o d wit h iro n

k no t s

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B earing Piles are dri ve n do wn eit her until t hey re ach a h ard s t rat um , o r unt il t h e fric t i o n o n t heir s i de s pre v e nts t he m fr o m s i nki ng, u po n wh ic h t hey are u se d as pill ars t o s uppo rt a pl at fo rm o f t i m ber Such pile s, if o f wo o d, sh o ul d be wh o le t i m b ers fro m 9 t o 1 8 i nche s in diam e t er, and if t hey are in s o ft so il t heir .

lengt h sh o ul d ne v er be m o re th an ab o ut t wenty t im e s t heir di am e ter o r t here will be danger o f t heir be ndi ng whe n dri ve n S/zor t Piles are dri v e n i nto s o ft s o i l t o c o m press and co n s o li dat e it U po n t heir he ads m ay be place d a p l at fo r m o f t i m ber o r l ay er o f cl ay o r c o ncre t e f r s a r e o nly o m 6 t o 1 2 fee t l o ng T he s e pile o f ro un d T hey sh o uld be dri ve n as t i m ber ab o ut 6 i nche s in di am e t er clo s e t o ge t her as is po ss ible wit h o ut t h e dri vi ng o f o ne pile causi ng t h e o thers t o ris e t o pre ve nt t hi s it is fo und nece ssary t o pl ace t hem at i nt erval s o f ab o ut 2 fee t 6 i nche s fro m ce nt r e t o ce nt re S/zeeting F iles are use d t o e ncl o s e t h e areas o f a fo undati o n and t h u s pre ve nt t h e s o il fro m s pre adi ng l at erally o r t o pro t ec t it fro m t h e act i o n o f wat er Shee t piles are flat pl ank s varyi ng in wi dth and fro m 3 t o T hey are s o m e t i m e s gro o ve d an d t o ngue d 1 0 i nche s t hick do wn t heir e dge s s o as t o fo r m a t igh t j o i nt and sh arpe ne d t o an e dge at t h e l o wer e nd which m ay b e sh o d wi t h ir o n In using shee t pili ng t o e ncl o s e so ft gro und lo ng gui de ile b a o ut 6 t o 1 0 fee t apar t are first dri v e n in t h e direc t i o n s p required O n o ppos it e s i de s o f t he s e are fi x ed beam s st ri ng “ s at a h o ri zo nt al di s t an c e apart j us t equal iece le w or a s p t o t h e t hickness o f t h e shee t pi le s whi c h are dri ve n do wn be t wee n t he m co m m e nci ng at t h e gui de pile s and wo rki ng i nwards in e ach bay s o t hat t h e last s h ee t pile dri ve n ac t s as a we dge and t ight e ns up t h e wh o le — — x l e o r n n P i s o A f h e s P l a/ t er ile t PILE FO U N D AT IO N s f p are dri ve n and t h e ir he ads s awn o ff le v e l a t i mber plat fo r m is l e er ly l a i d u po n t he m n a g T hi s c o nsi sts o f he avy s q uare b al ks calle d st ri ng piece s and c ro ss piece s no t ch e d i nt o o ne ano t h e r s o as t o fo r m a ,

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ch apter will co ntain brief no t es o n a few po int s co n ne c t e d wi t h Brick wo rk and M aso nry which by t h e S yllab u s are e xclude d fro m th e Ele m e nt ary C o urs e T H IS

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t h t i r h e s e n a n b c by S a d a b u s ll ) ( , y wh ich th ey are treated upon

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D iag o nal and h err ing bone courses H oop iron bond in brich worh [p b r in wal ls d m e n o t i o r s B e D a m r o co u s [p [p pp f s [p 6 I ] d i h l w a l r l o l o w i o n s i t c k s a e a i n l c t t o o w b r i an d t h e ob H [p j b lu es [ p PVin do w o r door open ings wit h splay ed jam bs [p up t o abo u t t wen ty f eet h es F irel a s A r c c e C h i m ney s [ p [p p n a l l d h c k s s us u o w r n i a n t h e t i e o I o o t s a e s h e d m H r t a r i n ; y 7 ] j f fi .

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C O M PO U N D VVA LI S .

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It h as already bee n sai d t h at uni fo r mi t y o f c o nst ruc t i o n in walli ng o f any de s cri pt i o n is o f t h e first i m po rt ance A ll wall s m ust be e xpect e d t o c o nso li dat e and s e t t le do wn when weigh t c o m e s upo n t he m, bu t s o l o ng as t hey s e tt le equally no i nj ury is do ne ; inequality o f se t t lem e nt , h o wev er s ligh t , is dangero u s, and pro duce s uns i gh t ly crack s in t h e .

mas o nry

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i rm i ty in co nstruct i o n leads t o such re sul ts and o t her e v il s are i nv o l ve d am o ng which is i nst abili t y wh en expo sed to t h e ac t io n o f fire Wi t h regard t o t hi s Capt ain Shaw t h e C hie f o f t h e Lo ndo n Fire Brigade says Th e wall o f a m t pre t e nt i o u and i m po i ng b uil di ng o f s uffi ci ent t h ick ne and appare nt ly t d o f so und t nes a e fo und t o c a k n tr at an e arly s tage f a fi e and p r haps t fall do wn al t o g e t h r and t h n it i dis c v red t h at t h y h av bee n nly a dece pt i o n havi ng been co ns t ruct d e t e rnally o f s t o ne and i n t e r nal ly f brick It will be as well t o no t ice two o r t hree fo rm s o f c o mpo si te wall s in o rder t h at t heir s t ruc tu re and de fec ts m ay be de s cribed In all c o m po und wall s t h e backi ng s h o ul d h av e j o i nt s as nearly as po s sible equal in nu mber and t hick ne ss t o t h o s e in Fire Survey s by C apt ai n Sh aw C B A want

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back and fro nt may set tle do wn under s t f h s u t e a m n i n o o t re re s e e x t e t h j i n h l be t s u e o t s i o d n ; p r u ce m ent o q ick se t t i ng m o rt ar in o rder t h at t hey m ay beco m e co nso li dat ed befo re any pre ss ure co m es upo n t he m ,

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is a Ev ils o f F ac in g wit h Su p eri o r B ri c k s c o m m o n pract ice, e s pecially in u s i ng s i ngle Fle m i sh b o nd, t o b uild t h e face wo rk wi t h be tt er brick s , and wi t h t hi nner

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Building Cons t ruct io n

b i ng filled in wi th mall rubbi sh o r by a large quant ity o f mo r tar wh i ch h a b e e n k n wn t o bul g e t h wall by it s h ydr s t at i c pre u re ce pt t h o se ab v m e nt i o ned bu il t T h e a h l ar fa i ng i in all r spe c t backing m ay b e f rando m r ubble d ne and t h a d s c rib ed in in fro m 1 0 t o 1 4 inc h es h igh acco rdi ng to th e d pt h o f th e st one s u rse in t h e faci ng Fig 9 1 is t h e s ect i o n o f a wall 3 fee t t hick wi t h an ashlar faci ng c o mpo se d o f go o d s ub stant ial st o ne s

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i m po rtance o f a dry building fo r it is al so m o st nece ssary fo r go o d c o n s ani tary reas o ns dam pne ss in t h e m as o nry c o m m unicat e s i t s el f t o s t ruc t io n t h e wo o dwo rk and c aus e s ro t t hr o ugh o ut t h e b uil di ng be s i de s — wh ich t h e m aso nry i t sel f is no t s o und th e m o r tar unle s s o f go o d hy draulic li m e o r ce m e nt do e s no t s e t and is al way s liable t o t h e at tacks o f fro st T o give so m e i dea o f t h e quant ity o f wat er t h at t h e wall s o f an i m pro perly pro t ect e d b uil di ng m ay c o nt ai n and o f t h e ev il e ffec ts c aus ed by dam p t h e fo llo wing rem ark s are quo t ed 1 fro m an o ffi ci al repo r t In Engl and t h e c o mm n b ri ck s ab s o rb as m uch as a pi nt o r po und o f wat e r Suppo s i ng th e t e nal wall o f an o rdi nary c o t t ag e t b e o n bric k t h i k and t n i t of bri k t h y will b e capabl o f h ldi ng 1 50 0 gall n o 6} t o ns f wat e r wh n at rat ed v ap rate th i am unt T f wat r w l d r q uir n arly a t n o f c al w ll appli d Th o ft r and m re w rk abl e t ne a e f v ari ft e n d g re e f ab rb nc y and a m o r e re t nt iv e f m i t ur th an c m m o n bri ck r A n t d t at Pr f t h at t h e fac ili t y wi t h wh i ch and t n rbs wat r i ill t rat d by t h e ab n t i n i n H t a t a t i y t c i n s b h r d i ry h n a r d o t a t i n a t a a n d s t a t t t w q t h at ve n gr ani t al ways rt ai n p r e ntage f wat r and in th nt ai n a d y s t at e is rar ly wi t h ut a pi nt and a h al f in e ve ry bic f t Sandst ne h we ve r even t h at deem ed fi t fo buildi ng purpo se may nt ai n h al f a gall o n n w a t ubi and at l e as t t w ll h n t e r r n a f t and l o o W p g p t e l f in any par t f s c h m at e ri al it re adily di ffuses i t l f by t h e p w r o f by wh ich it i o b e rv d n so m e wall in Paris it c apill ary at t a t i n f undat i o n W all s o f such abso rbent co nst ue as e nd 32 f e t fro m t h t t ri si ng we t by capill ary at t ra t i o n as w ll a t h e d ivi ng t i n a e ubj as t e w t f rain o s t o r m T g uard agai n t t h dr i ng we t o n th e d n n n a o s iv e t e a l c v e ri n w e t h e r l a t e s a e u d B u t t h e s e t g p ,

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rder t o preve nt t h e dam p and b ad air o ut o f t h e gro und fro m ri si ng int o t h e b uil di ng T hi s precaut i o n is h o we v er ge neral ly o mi tt e d bec aus e it i nvo lve s e xpense ; b ut m e asure s t o kee p t h e walls dry are o r s h o ul d be ado pt e d in ne arly all b uil di ngs i nt e nde d fo r o cc upa t i o n by h um an bei ngs T h e walls o f a b uildi ng are li able t o be ch arge d wi t h mo i s t ure 1 By we t ri si ng in t he m fro m t h e damp e art h 2 By rai n falli ng u po n t h e e x t e ri o r o f t h e wall s h o f r B f t e o s a n er r r o le ki u er i i w m tt s k n a o s o a n t t o 3 g g g y t h e t 0 ps o f t h e wall s O f t he s e e v il s t h e firs t m ay be prev e nt e d by t h e c o nst ruct i o n drai ns and by t h e i nt ro duc t io n o f dam p o f dry are as o r airo f o u n o s h d m a u n t a d r c r e s t e ec be c er c e by i er i s o o t m u s v o p ; y p o u t er c o at i ngs o r by t h e u s e o f h o ll o w wall s ; and t h e t h i rd av o i de d by t h e us e o f pr o jec t i ng e ave s wi t h pro er g ut te rs— o r p where parape t walls are u s e d b y an upper dam p c o u rs e Air D rain s are narro w dry are as 9 i nche s o r m o re in wi dt h fo rm e d ar o und s uch part s o f t h e wall s o f a b uil ding as are b e l o w

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c aut i o ns ado pt ed t o preve nt damp o ut o f t h e gr o und fro m ri s i ng in walls it is nece ssary ( e speci ally whe n u s i ng i nferi o r brick s o r po r o u s s t o ne s) t o pre v e nt m o i s t ure falli ng upo n t h e o ut er face fr o m pene t rat i ng t o t h e i nt eri o r o f th e wall T h e w t m ay b e k ept o ut o f t h e i nte ri o r o f th e wall by re nde ring th wi t h ce m e nt c o v ri ng it wi t h s l at es fi d n bat t e n e t ri r su rfac Tayl o r po t t e ry fac i ng bri cks answe r t h e w i t h glaze d t il e s et in c em e nt e u r s am p p A n t h r pl an pat ent ed by M r T ayl o r c ns i ts o f o ve rl appi ng l at e — n h m dd o f h e e t w a t h v r i i l ll ally i t e t wo po r t i o ns o f wh i c h a e c d e t l a c p u ni t d by pecu li ar ir n t i e h i m i u w a ll i n i M e l n a t e d rv n by h i e i a n c t W t e f Th Hyg p g p A be rgav e nny c o n i t o f a v e r t i cal s hee t o f wat e rpr o o f co mpo s i t io n i nt ro duce d i nt o t h e t h i ck n s s o f t h e wall H o ll o w W all s no t o nly exclude t h e dam p b ut t h e layer o f n t n n n d u o f n t hey c a i n bei a o c o c o r he a t e s kee t n t d o o air t g p Such wall s are fo rm e d in t wo s e parat e t h e b uil di ng warm n n a d v n r i n i n er ic a lly a r llel o e a her d i i e a a t o t s t d v t d o n s o d t o p g p b y a space o f ab o ut 2 o r 3 i nche s so m e t i m e s 45 i nche s T he s e t wo po r t i o ns are ge nerally unit e d ei t he r b y s peci al T here are s e ve ral ways o f b o nding brick s o r by iro n cramps arrangi ng t h e t hick ne ss o f t h e po r t i o ns o f t h e wall and t h e s pace c o nsequent po s i t i o n o f t h e airIn s o m e c as e s t h e t wo po rt i o ns are o f e q ual t hickne ss th e air space bei ng in t h e ce nt re V ery freque ntly o ne o f t h e po rt i o ns is o nly 4;i nche s t h ick buil t in brickwo rk in s tre t chi ng b o nd ; t h e o ther is o f such t hick ne s s as m ay be n ece s sary t o gi ve t h e wh o le s t abili t y In such a c ase t h e t hi n n a n r i e i e l ce i s t s d m o so m o t o p p t h e o ut er and s o m e t i m e s o n th e i nner s i de o f t h e wall H ollo w Walls with th e Th in P o rtion inside — In so m e cas e s s uch fo r i ns tance as whe n t h e wall h as a st o ne face t h e i o t n s n t h d b t t i n h r i ece rily i i e h rr e e o s s a u a n m a n n s s t a s o e g p many disadvantage s ,

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r t place th e bulk o f th e wall is still e posed t dam p and th e ak in t o wi t h i n 7 o 8 i nch es o f t h e i nt e ri o r o f t h e b uil di ng mo i t ur Ag ai n if t h e wall h as t carry a ro o f e pe nse i cause d as t h s pan h ld b e i ncreased so as t bring th wall lat es o n t th e o ute r o r sub i f e a l a r t h w a ll c l a r f t h n t t e n n i h i i n c s ta 4 Q p g Th i m ay b e av o i ded b y bridg i ng ve r t h e airs pac e s a t o m ak e t h e wall so li d at t h e t 0 p wh i ch h we e r r ende rs it li abl e t o damp in th at a r t p T h e r e is an advantage in h aving t h e t h i c k po rt i o n o f th e wall o ut s i de wh en deep re ve als h ave t o b e fo rm ed fo r th e do o r and wi nd w o pe ni ngs — t h t h h ll e i o ll o w a w Z i n P o W r t I t h H f e i l i nc h ion outside n i s pl ace d o ut s i de t h e dam p is at o nce i nt erce pt e d b y r i o t o p i r space kept o ut o f t h e gre at er po rt io n o f t h e wall and h a t e at a c o nsi derable di stance fro m t h e i nt eri o r o f t h e b uil di ng Th e ro f can b e eco no m i cally arranged so as t o res t p n t h e i nt e rio r t h i ck r po r t i o n f t h e wall T h e s t re t h i ng bo nd is h o we v e r c ns i de r ed by so m e t b e ns igh tly F l m i sh b o nd by u i ng fal h eade s u nl ess m ade t o appe ar lik e Eng l i h t h i n e t eri o r po r t i o n if l abl e t o b e and wh e re t h e bri ck s are b ad t h at tac ked by fro s t is in t i m d t r ye d M re ve r when th e t h i n p r t i n is o utsi de th e r is m e di ffi cul ty in in a lid m ann r wi th ut th e ir b o mi ng a c n t ruc t i ng dee p r e veal damp ac ro ss t h e O pe ni ng O n th wh o l e h o we ve r t h e c h ann l fo arrange m e nt wi t h th e t h i n p r t i o n o uts ide is th e best — H ollow Walls with B o nding B ricks Je nni ng s pat ent b o nd ing brick s are m ade o f v i t rifie d po t t ery and are o f t h e sh ape T hes e brick s are b ui lt in acro s s t h e o pen s h o wn in Fig 9 2 In th e fi

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i w t i n h r F d i e d he o n t a a r f req e y e i e e u n t l u s d s n t a d 4 , , y 9 p g p o f b o ndi ng brick s, and h ave t h e advant age o f no t bei ng li abl e .

be bro ke n if th e wall sho uld s e ttle unequally O n t h e o ther h and t hey are subject t o decay by rust and to expans io n fro m t h e sam e cause which may i nj ure t h e wall n T h e t ie s are abo ut 8 i nche s l o ng é w d i ch i by i ch e n } t hick ; t hey are place d ab o ut 3 feet apart h o ri zo nt ally and wi t h 9 i nch v ert ical i nterval s be twee n th e ro ws Each t ie is ei ther be nt o r t wi st e d in t h e m iddle s o as to s t o p t h e passage o f wat er al o ng it s sur face and h o ll o w iro n t ie s po ss e ssi ng gre at st re ngt h as s t rut s have fo r s o m e t i m e bee n i ntro duce d 3 inch wi de and 1 3 t hick Cas t iro n cram ps are m ade ab o ut and s o m e wh at s i mil ar in fo rm t o t h e abo v e T h e h o ll o w wall is o ft e n arrange d t o begin o n t h e damp i b t i s e u t s t r f c u r s e e be t er c i n e h h l o n o t t u t e l o o o w o o ( p p fo r t wo o r t hree c o urs e s l o wer as sh o wn in Fig 94 so t h at any wet falli ng i nt o t h e c avi t y m ay be well bel o w t h e dam p co urse When t hi s is do ne t h e as phal te damp c o urse may be co nt i nue d o nly acro ss t h e i nne r t hick ne ss o f t h e wall A B A c o veri ng c o urs e o f brick wo rk is place d o n t h e t o p Fig 9 4 o f t h e air space which s h o ul d h av e no c o mmunicat i o n wi t h t h e o ut er air to

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rubble t hey vary in th ick ness acc o rdi ng t o th e nature o f t h e wo rk Th e b ricks o r s t o nes sh o uld be we l l wette d espec ially in h o t weathe r so as t o rem o ve t h e dus t wh i c h wo ul d pre v ent t h e mo rt ar fro m adh e ring t t h em and also t o pre v ent t h e m fr o m s u ki ng t h e wat r ut o f t h e m o rt ar Th e m rt ar sh o ul d b e used s t i ff and e ve ry j i nt we ll flus h e d all i nt e rs t i ces bei ng filled wi th bit s o f brick o r sto ne s t in m o r tar Larry ing is th e m e th o d usually ad pt d fo r filli ng in t h e i nt ri o r o f ve ry Afte r th e bricks fo r m i ng t h e e t e ri o r face s f a c o ur e a t h i ck walls laid a t hi ck b e d o f so ft mo r t ar is pr ad b t wee n t h e m and t h e bri cks f t h e ins ide o f t h e wall are o n by ne push ed al o ng in t h i s bed unt il t h e m o rtar ri s s in th e j o i nts be t wee n t h m G ou t ing c nsis ts in po uri ng ve ry li q ui d m o rt ar o ve r t h e co urse l ast l ai d in o rde r t hat it m ay run i nt o all vac ui t i es l eft by care less wo rk mansh i p in no t pro pe rly filli ng up all t h e i nt ernal j i nts wi t h m o rtar G ro ut is h o we ve r a weak and o bj ec t i o nable fo rm o f m o r t ar t o g

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BIi i/ding Cons truct io n

h ard so t h at th e mo rt ar is dri ve n in beyo nd t h e face o f th e wall ; a gro o ve o f cur ve d sect i o n is t h us fo rm e d h av ing it s s urfac e h arde ne d by t h e re s re s u p In so m e cas e s t h e m o i s t key is dipped int o ashes which are t hus r ubbe d i nt o t h e sur face o f t h e j o int s f t m h f o o e a o f r jec r t ce M as o n s o r V J o int s h Pl p Wi t h go o d m o r tar t hey t h e wall wi t h an angular V s ect io n t hr o w o ff t h e we t b ut whe n i nferi o r li m e is use d t hey s o o n beco m e sat urat e d and de st ro yed by fro st R akin g an d Po in t in g c o ns is t s in re m o ving th e o rigi nal m o r t ar j o int s t o a de pt h o f ab o ut 3 i nch in fro m t h e face i Pl filling in wi t h m o r tar k Pl and fi ni sh i ng t h e j o i nt s in o ne o f t h e m e t ho ds ab o ut t o be de scribe d Po i nt i ng is io t advi abl e f r ne w wo rk wh en it can b e av ide d as t h e j int t h us f rm ed a e no t s e nduri ng as t h ose wh ich are fi nish ed at t h e t i m e th m as o n y is b uil t D ri ng s v re fro st h o we ve r it w uld b e use l s t o t rike th e j o i nts at t h e t i m e t h e wo rk i buil t f r t h e m rt ar wo uld b e des t r ye d by th e fr t Po i nt i ng i m r v r ft e n r s r t d t o wh n it i i nt nded t o g ive t h e wo rk a up ri o r app arance and al t co nc al t h e de f t o f i nfe i r w rk In r pairi ng ld m a o nry bri k w rk t h e m o r ta f wh ich has be co m e decayed raki ng o ut and po i nt i ng b e m n ce s ary B th in ld and ne w wo rk b f r p i nt i ng t h e o ri gi nal m o r t ar sh ul d b e rak e d o t wi t h an ir n h o k ed p i nt and t h e s urface we ll we tt e d b fo re t h e fres h m o rt ar is appli ed — T h e rake d j o i nt s are filled in F l at J o in t Po int in g wi t h fi ne m o rt ar and s t ruck flat wi t h t h e t ro wel o r j o i nt er as T hey m ay be j o i nt e d as at b Pl I at k P] I is u s e d chie fly fo r brick wo rk ; T u c k Po in t in g l Pl “ s t o ppe d t h at is fille d up t h e j o i nt s h avi ng bee n rake d are T hi s is c o lo ure d o r rubbe d o ver wi t h a flush wi t h m o r tar s o ft brick u nt il t h e j o i nt s and brick s are o f t h e s am e c o l o ur A narro w gro o ve is t he n cu t al o ng t h e ce nt re o f e ach j o i nt A ft er t hi s t h e gro o v e is and t h e m o r t ar is all o we d t o se t fil le d wi th pure whi t e li meu y hich i s c a s e r jec t t w u d o o t t p p s o as t o fo r m a narr o w whi t e ri dge t h e e dg e s o f which are c ut i nc h o ff parallel so as t o le av e a r ai s e d whi t e li n e ab o ut Thi s pro c e ss c aus e s i nferi o r wo rk t o l o o k as if it h ad wi de bee n execut ed wit h large bric k s and v ery fi ne j o i nt s ;in carryi ng it o u t any de fec t s in t h e wo rk s uch as irre gul ari t y o f j o i nt s are c o rrec t e d b y s m e ari ng o ver t h e face and s t riki ng fal s e it

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Var ious

Bonds

ment ioned in B B C

not

wo rk is disgui se d

j oi nts so t hat badly e xecut ed t o pre s e nt a go o d appe arance ,

69

.

.

and

m ade

.

B astard Tuck P ointing, m Pl I , c o nsi st s in fo rm i ng a 1 5 f m t o 3 wi de o n t h e s t o ppi ng i t s el f, t h e e dge s bei ng ri dge ro ,, .

.

r llel

c ut

a a p

r

h e a t f o t p

B lu e

wi t h

as

cle an j o i nt being and

or

.

B l ac k

T here is

whi t e

r jec i o t n p g o f t h e sam e c o l o ur as t h e re m ai nder Po in t in g is do ne wi th m o rt ar m i xe d no

line

th e

,

.

hes i nst ead o f sand

.

W hen

a wall is t o b e plast ered t h e Key in g fo r Pl as t e r j o i nt s are ei t her rake d as at i P] I o r t h e m o rt ar j o int s are — left ro ugh and project ing in ei ther case t o fo rm a key fo r t h e s r l a t e p V e rt ic al J o int s are s im ilar t o h o rizo ntal j o int s but in many cas e s are m uch t h i nner .

,

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VA RIO U S BO N DS N O T M ENT IO N ED IN E B C .

Th e pri nci pal b ut t here

b o nds

.

.

in brickwo rk were de s cribe d in are o ne o r t wo variet ie s no t so c o m m o nly u s e d which re m ai n t o be no t ice d R akin g B o n d is o f t wo kinds, D iagonal and Herringbone In b o th t h e bricks in t h e int eri o r o f t h e wall are placed in direct i o ns o bli qu e t o t h e face A c o urse o r two o f raking b o nd is so met im es i nt ro duce d at i nt er val s in t hick walls b uilt in English b o nd us

ed

.

.

.

.

.

r

ri

r h e rs

Th e p o po t o n o f s t et c T h e a ng its t ck ness c o u s es are t e e fo e us e fu l in g ng o ng t ud na t ck wa s to s t e ngt w c de fi cie nt in are

r

hi

r

s

a

b ri ck

ll dim ini h es

wa

s

ac co

rdi ng

to

hr r ivi l i i l h hi ll

hi h tr t h r e c

r ki

.

in

e s

.

b k r ki l r r rk i ir i

In o t h inds o f a ng b o nd a t e nat e c o u se s a e in o ppo s t e d ect o ns .

B o nn

D IA G O N AL

— In

.

his t h e bricks e h t s e in th e xce pt o ( face o f t h e wall) are lai d diago nally at such an angle wi t h will j ust fi t in wit h o ut being cut t

,

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F 10

.

1 1 1

.

t h e fa

ce h t

at th e

br ck i

s

A dvanced

0 7

Building Cons t ruct ion

b c wa is th e t nnes t in w c t s can b e do ne , and th en A two In t c e wa l s d ago na o nd m ay b e in th e s t et c ng co u se s on ns e t ed in any co u se T h e t ang u a s paces at th e ac o f th e fac ng ic s are o ect o na e ; it t a es s o m e t o u e t o cut a p ece t o fi t t em, and t e are th e efo re f equent le ft em pt

ri k ll ly r hi i r r ri l r k r bl r ly y

r

hi

hi h hi

hi k r

.

.

b k i

l

i

i

l b

br k

h

bj

hy

i

r

bl

.

BO N E BO ND H ERRIN G-

bricks laid raking fro m th e s i de s t o ward t h e cent re line o f t h e wall as sho wn

consists

of

,

in Fig 1 1 2 T hi s is a de fect i ve .

.

b o nd fo r in addi ti o n t o t h e trian h u a l r s a ce s a t t b ck f e a o g p t h e faci ng bricks t here are likely t o be vo ids e ach larger t h an h alf a brick left in t h e care be taken t o have t hem ,

,

,

Fm

m

,

,

,

,

e re o f th e wall unless gre at i n r erl fi l le o d p p y H erri ngb one c o urses canno t be i ntro duced at all in walls le ss t h an t hree bricks t hick and o nly in t h e st ret ching co urses o f s uch a wall ; in t hic ker wall s h o wever thi s b o nd may be i ntro duce d in any co urse In pract ice t hi s bo nd is rarely if ever ado pt ed fo r wall s 1 R e v e al s wit h Spl ay e d J am b s Sp1ayed j am b s in brickwo rk are weaker t han s quare j am bs and sh o ul d o nly b e us e d where t here is a go o d i nt er val be t ween th e wi ndo ws c nt

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1

Brick W all i-

.

G

FI S

Figs

.

11

3,

1 1 4.

G

FI S

.

1 1 5,

1 1 6.

a n s o f h t e t l l er e c r e e a n a t u o s s f a r o veal p Reveal s wi th sq uare j am b s b e l o ng to t h e Elementar C o urse y .

1 1

3

,

1 1 4, are

.

A rch es

1 7

i n i n br c k w a ll li s h l y j amb s fo r i E ( i ) g bo nd Figs 1 1 5 1 1 6 are plans o f t h e same in an 1 8in ch 2brick ll w a ( ) Figs 1 1 7 1 2 0 giv e t h e sam e info rm at io n fo r 1 4i nch and i nch walls in Fle m ish b o nd T here is a peculiarity in 1 8-

with

a 1 4 i nch

sp a ed .

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l~ Brick Wall

G

FI S

th e

2

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bo nd

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of

11

7

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FI S

1 1 8.

.

Brick W all

.

1 20

1 1 9,

.

wall s which may be no t iced It will be are no fal s e headers in t h e face Eve ry

t h e se

.

een t h at t here header is a who le brick : t his m akes st ro nger wo rk and causes fewer splits in t h e wall t h an th e o rdinary s ingle Flemi sh bo nd When Splaye d j amb s are t o h av e li ni ngs t hey may be bu il t wit h s quare o ffs e t s as in Figs 1 2 1 s

.

,

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,

122 FIG

.

.

Arc h

121.

,

e s

— .

Sm a l l

Fic

.

1 22.

h arches o f brick wo rk are gen erally t urne d in h alf brick rings and t hi s is e s pecially nece s sary whe n t h e arch is o f a quick c urv e in o rde r t o av o i d large j o int s u o n t h e e xtrado s p So m e aut h o rities h o wever rec o mme nd th at flatt er arches e sp eci ally t h o s e o f l arger span sh o ul d be b uil t in 9 i nch ri ngs T h is m av be do ne in t wo o r t hree di ffere nt way s ro ug

,

,

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,

,

,

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,

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A dvanced

72

Building Const ru ct ion —Fi g

being t h e sec tio n and n s f l o n s t n o a t na t a c i i l er e c o r e he er re cher u s s f o a d s n a d s t t s p g

1.

th e

IN EN G LISH BO ND

1 23

.

.

,

,

FIG

re s e nt i ng t h e p arch

e r ce

app a an

of

.

‘2 3

.

Engli sh

b o nd

i

o n t h e so ff t o f t h e

.

2

.

IN FLEMISH

— Th e BO N n .

ct i o n b eing like

se

t h at in

n n a r a m t h a s i e r e e t e g 3 face o f a wall b uil t in Flem i sh b o nd — N D h t n T u t n n B O e ri hr u h o c o s i i f N s N E A D I o t o I H G g g g 3 he aders as in t h e sectio n Fig 1 2 4 ex c e pt ing at th e e nds o f t h e arch where t hreequart er bricks are int ro duce d t o break th e b o nd in th e sam e manner as is do ne in t h e face o f a wall b uilt in Fm m h eadi ng b o nd O f th e abo ve varie t ie s th e he ading b o nd is t h e st ro nge st as t h e v o uss o irs are e ach in o ne piece and no b at s are require d ; b ut it is v ery diffic ul t t o m ake ne at wo rk wi t h such a b o nd and it is t herefo re v e ry s el do m ado pt ed A RC H ES 1 % BRIC K T H IC Km ay be b uilt as sh o wn in Fig 1 2 5 which re pre se nt s a sect i o n ; t h e end elevat io n o f t h e arch is t h e sam e and t h e plan is like t h e face o f a wall in Engli sh b o nd 1 ARC H ES T U RN ED IN W H O LE F 5 BR IC K R IN G S c o ns i st o f ri ngs like t h at in Fig 1 2 4 s uperpo se d o ne o v er t h e o ther E BRIC K R IN G S ( se e Fig 1 2 6) are v e ry 2 H A LF ARC S IN H c o m mo nly u s e d and are e as ily b uilt ; t hey sh o ul d no t h o w e ver be ado pt e d fo r spans exceeding 30 fee t T h e rings h ave in such a c ase t h e wh o le weigh t a t e nde ncy t o s e tt le uneq ually m ay be t hro wn for a mo me nt upo n a single ring : if t his is

F ig

1 2

.

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and t h e s o ffi t s h o w ng t h e sam .

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16 . 1 2

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I

A dv anced

74

B uilding Const ruct ion

bricks and thus enable t h em t o o bt ain a fi rm bearing Ho o p iro n bo nd is so m et im e s int ro duced be tween t h e ri ngs parallel ,

.

t o t h e s o ffi t

.

In

o

eldo m alluded s

rdinary buil dings h o wever arch es o f l arge span are req uired and t hey nee d no t t here fo re b e furthe r ,

,

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to

,

.

B o n d Tim b e rs were at o ne t i m e e xt e ns iv ely use d t o gi v e l o ngi tudi nal strengt h t o walls, b ut t hey are inj uri o us in m any

way s

.

In pro ce ss

i

t ime t hey shri nk , t hey ro t , and,

of

in

cas

e o f fire

,

t hey

b urn away ; in eit her i ns tance t h e wh o le superincum bent weight o f t h e wall is t hro wn upo n a small po rt i o n o f it ; 0 1 agai n t hey m ay ab so rb m o i s t ure swe ll and o v ert hro w t h e m aso nry ,

,

,

,

.

i

rro w h o rizo ntal pieces buil t i nto th e j ints f walling parall l t o o ne an t he r at i nt e rvals o f abo ut 1 8 inche t o f r m g ro unds fo r bat t eni ng e t c T h e face o f th e pi c s proj e cts e tc Slig h t ly f m t h e wall so t h at t h e b at t ens may b e c l ear o f t h e m a o nry D y wo o d pl ugs m ay b e use d i nst ead le t i nt o h le s c t in t h e 1 11 63 0 bri ks no t in t h e beds o r j o int s o t he rwise t he y may swell and di sturb t 11e wall It h as already be en s tated t h at t i m be r in e ve ry sh ape and fo rm s h o ul d ibl ; wh re it i b e k e pt o ut o f bri ckwo rk and m a nry as m u h as p lute ly necessary t inse t it in rde r t o fo rm a ho ld fo r wo o dwo rk e t c ab t h e pi ece s h o ul d b e as sm all as pract i cabl e RA NG IN G BO ND

o

co ns st s o f na

s,

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e

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o

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ro

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H o o p iro n B o nd,

co nsi st i ng o f st ri ps o f h o o p iro n ( abo ut 1 1 ; inch bro ad and I E o t ; 5 1,

i nch

t hick) ,

ed

sand

and

,

j o int s

t arre d

insert e d

in h re f er a ble p

as s o wn

and

in t h e

Fig

1 2 9,

.

bo nd t i mbers and is frequent ly n f e e eci lly i h a l bric d s k a us p wall s T h e h o o p ir o n Sh o uld in eas e be t h o ro ugh ly e v e ry h f a t e t o n r ec t e f r o m c i o t d o p is far

to

,

,

2

.

1

*

10

.

1 2 9.

reezeb ri ck s may be subs t i t ut e d fo r t h es e S m t i m es o ne o r t wo t i a used f each brick o f t h e wal l Seddo n s B uilders Wo k B

o

.

s r

e

’

.

s

or

re r

.

in th e t

h i kn c

e ss

Br ick D rains

Sewers

and

75

here o r it will o x idize and destro y th e maso nry ; if use d in t hin wall s t hey sh o ul d be b uil t in cem ent T h e e nds o f th e h o o piro n sho uld b e bent so as t o hoo k o ne ano t her at t h e j o i nt s in t h e le ngt h and at c o rner s where t wo wall s m ee t fo rm i ng an angle iece h P s of o o p ir o n are o ft e n used t o make a j unc t i o n where t h e b o nd o f t h e brick wo rk is de fec t i ve t h e atmo sp

,

.

,

,

.

,

.

BRIC K DRAIN S AN D

SEW ERS .

Brickwo rk is

e vi dently no t adapt ed fo r drai ns o f very small di am e t er as t here are nece ssarily v ery wide j o int s o n t h e ext rado s o f rings turned t o a quick curv e Eart he nware pi pe s bei ng che aper and pre ferable in e very way hav e in m o st c as e s l o ng s i nce s uperse de d brick wo rk fo r drai ns o f le ss t han 1 8 i nche s o r 2 fee t in diam e t er — When pipe s C irc u l ar D rains are no t pro curable circ ular drains may be c o nstruct e d wit h brick s as sh o wn in s ec t i o n Fig 1 30 8 Thi s fi gure sho ws an 1 inch drai n c o nst ruct e d wi t h t wo hal f brick F 3 rings but as a rule t h e t hickness o f t h e bric kwo rk nee d no t b e m o re t han o ne ri ng ( o r 4% inch e s ) in s e wers o f le ss t h an 3 fee t diam et er — An o t her fo rm o f brick drain c o ns i s t s o f C o v e re d D rain a se m icirc ul ar i nv ert e d arch c o v ere d wi t h a flat s to ne S t h e re m o val o f which give s e asy acce ss t o t h e drai n fo r exam i nat i o n E gg s h ape d Se we rs may be co ns truc t e d T h e pro o f t h e sec t i o n sh o wn in Fig 1 3 2 f u s t n r t i n s s ch e w er s a y cc r i r o o o d o o v a p g F 3 circum stances ; but in all cas e s t h e i nver t i sh o ul d h ave a qu ick curv e ( o f radi us no t e x cee di ng 9 i nche s) and t h e cro wn sh o ul d b e a s e m icircle ,

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IG

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io n is t o m ake th e diamete r o f th e i nvert he igh t o f t h e sewe r e q ual to 3 t i mes th e

Th e usua met o d o f c o nst uc t h a f t at o f t h e c o wn, and t h e diamet e o f t h e n e t

l h

r

r i vr

.

A dvanced

6 7 T hus in Fig

.

Building Co nstruct ion

1 32

h i = cf = I h g t m ay b e fo m ed e t e oc , o r w th an in ert

inve r co t t a i nv e r t bl k Th e

i

.

r

i h r o f brick w rk in c ment with a te rra v blo ck b edded in co ncrete as s ho wn at o

e

,

,

B in F ig 1 32 — k B ric s and I nv erts B c s fo r s e we s s ou d b e o f th e h a des t po s s e d au c m o t e E e n t h e est de sc pt o n, and a d in c s w be d h es t o e d t e se wag e radua g a d las t ng m at e a wit eq u e t o b e o f T h e in e t s e spe c a a su face , s o as t o es s t as t t e as poss e t h e pass ag e o f t h e se wa e smo o t g m at t e pass ng o e t e m T e s o u d, t h e e fo e , b e fo me d w t a s m o o t h t e ao ck , as s o wn in Fig co t t a o r fi re clay n e t 1 32 , o r u t w th .

ri i lly

‘

rr

.

ry

l i

.

by i lly r r i

vr h r r i vr h

r h l r r v

ri k h y r li

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hr

ir li l hy h l i v r bl

h

1

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i

ibl

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F IG

v ry b r

b

.

32

r bri k

r r

r

.

ibl ill

ri l

h

ih b il

i

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” o u e s m ou d d r l e p p

h bri k ri k r hr hy ih br k l ih

r i

B c s c s sm o o t o th e e t or e d a d l i a z g o c s are m ake t h e e st s e we s ; b ut w e e t e canno t b e o t a ned, ic s p ace d in f am es , g o u te d and co mm o n s o m e t m es fo m e d w t fo m e d nt o a so d m ass w t c e m ent W en se we s are co nst uct ed in a po o us so , th e n e t s o u d b e e u t , and a in ng o f pudd e c a p ac ed o ut s de th e s e we , so as c a e fu t g t t o a f its e t ca dept t e w i a t t o e nde G e at c a e S o u d b e t a en in fi l ng in o e s e we s, so t at arge c o ds may no t b e a o wed t o fa l upo n t h e c wo k and o r m asses o f ea t n u e it

r

i

h

i

r

.

li

r

r lly b il l i r r r i h hl r r h l k rh ij r

b i r

.

bl k r

i vr h l v ry i r

r il l l y l v ri l h li v r ll l .

r

h l

l

bri k r

.

c o nst ruct io n o f drai ns wi t h s to neware pi pe s and o f s ewers in c o ncre t e o r in s e gm ent bl o ck s n ee d no t be no t ice d as th e subjec t do es no t fall wi t hi n t h e li mi t s o f t hi s Co urse Th e

,

.

,

,

,

.

Ch im ney s

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firepl ace s in a h o us e frequ ently stand o ne imm ediat ely 1 fro m t h e l o wer ro o m s o ver t h e o t her and e ach c h i mney flue h as in c o nsequence t o be carrie d t o o ne Side o r t h e o ther t o avo id t h e fireplac e s ab o v e it — Fl ue s fro m th e l o wer s t o rie s Arran ge m e n t o f F lu e s are t here fo re nece ssarily c ur ve d b ut no t t h o s e fro m t h e at t ic s a c urve is h o we v er c o ns i dere d adv i sable in all flue s t o pre ve nt r ai n o r slee t fro m be at i ng v ert ically o n t o t h e fire and t o w d n drau gh t s o f co l d air T hi s c u rv e s h o ul d be suffi cie nt o o st p t o pre ve nt dayligh t fr o m bei ng s ee n whe n l o o ki ng u p t h e flue T h e funnel o r O peni ng ab o ve t h e fire pl ace is gat here d so as t o be c o nt rac t e d t o t h e s ize o f t h e o v er ( se e p flue require d F ire pl ace s generally require m o re de pt h t h an c an b e pro n v ide d in t h e t hick n e s s o f t h e wall ; t hi s nece s s i t at e s a r ec o p j t i o n t o c o ntain t h e fire pl ace and fl ue s c alle d t h e ch imney breas t So m et i m e s t his pro jec t io n is o n t h e back o f t h e wall in whi ch cas e it gives m o re space and a m o re co nve nient sh ape t o t h e Wh e n o n t h e o ut er wall o f a h o use it m ay be made an ro o m o rnam e ntal fe at ure Eve ry firepl ace s h u l d h av e a di s t i nc t fl e to i t se l f if t h e fi nes f t wo mm uni at and o nly o n fi e b e li gh t d it will draw air fr m fi repl a es wn m k m ay e nt e r any t h r and m k e m re o v e r i t t h e t h r fir pla f wh i h i c nnect ed wi t h t h sam fl o m t h e fir pl ace T h e air h at d by t h e fi e i r ar fi ed r e nde r d ligh te r and a cends t h e flu drawi ng t h e s mo k e wi t h it wh il st co l d air rus hes i nt o it pl ace fr m be l w He nce th e t h ro at o r lo we r o peni ng o f t h e flue s h o ul d b e sm all so t h at no ai m ay pass t h r o ugh it wi t h o ut firs t co m i ng int o co nt act wi t h t h e fi re and be i ng t h ro ugh ly war m e d Th e flue sh o l d n t b l arge r t h an is ne cessary fo c o nve yi ng th e sm o ke large it will m k e in ce r tai n wind and h e at e d ai ; if to W i th regard t o th pr pe r s ize fo flu s th e re are g eat di ffe re nces o f n o h z d n h f f f i i n i h l v y a cco r i t o t e ir a n e o d i r T S r o d a c c m s t c e e u u e nt p g n ca e s b ut ge ne ally p ak i ng a fl i h s square is suffi ie nt to ca ry ff 9 th m k e fr m v ry m all g rat e a flue 1 4 inc h s x 9 i n h es fo r o rdi nary fireplaces and a flue 1 4 i nch es x 1 4 i n h f l arge ki tch n ranges T h e m all r t h e fi ne and t h e gr at e r t h e h igh t t h e m r rapi d t h e d aug h t and t h e l ess li k ly t h e c h i m n y t o m o k pr vide d t h at s ffic i nt ai r i uppli e d and t h at t h e flue i la g e no ug h t o carry ff t h e s m o k e Th e flue sh o ul d c h ange it s dire t i n by g radual curv and c ntai n no Th e

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L I EXTERNA L WA LLS EN G L I SH BO N D — Ia ordinary b uil di ngs th e external wall s o f c h i mneys and c h im ne y breasts are fo r e c o no my m ade o nly h al f a bri c k th ick th ro ugh o ut bo th i ns ide th e b uildi ng and abo v e t h e roo f Examp le s o f th e ne c e ss ary bo nd are th ere fore sh o wn in Fi gs I 49 1 50 th o ugh s uc h th i n e xt ernal wall s are obje c tionable fo r th e re as ons already st ated H

A FBR C K

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ex

St retch ing B ond

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ON D— Th e se 45-inch e t e rnal walls a e g nerally built in d ina y m anne s t re t ch i ng bo nd ; u h a b nd h we v er car i d o ut in t h e th c wi th s q ui t e d e t ach d f o m t h e s i d e walls as are t h e wi th e le av ST RETC H IN G

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i th e wi th es in alt e nat e walls t o t h e d e p t h o f 1 b ri ck o r 2 } i n h s as c ause t o p ene t at e t h e s i d s h o wn in wi t h es C C D D F ig 1 50 o r b y cut t i ng t h e b ri c k s fo m i ng t h e e nd s o f t h e wi t h es t o a m it e as at E F F ig 1 49 so as t o fi t t h e adj ace nt b ricks in t h e t e nal walls whi ch a e s i mi la ly cut I n bo t h t h e se ar ange m nt s t h e b i ck s are no t allo we d t o s h o w o n th e face o f t h e e t ernal wall as h eaders wo uld int erfere wi t h t h e appe arance o f t h e st re t ch i ng bo nd ve

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87

‘

BR I C K EXTERNAL W ALLS, F L EMISH B O N D — Th e HAL F.

e xternal wall s o f c hi m neys m ay very c onv e niently be b uil t in Fle m ish bo nd as sh o wn in Fig s 1 51 1 52 It will be noticed t h at th ere i s no el aborat e c utti ng o f bri ck s th e bo nd i s pe r fe c tly s ym me t rical and th e wi the s are ad m irabl y uni te d wi t h t h e e xt ernal wall s ,

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If th e fi nes very large t c r c s o r false

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we re

re

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ternal

quire d

walls

.

Flem is h Bond

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i h

t o b e 1 4 nc e s wo ul b e use nst ea

ki he n h i m ney i bri cks he ade rs i nserte d at It a c

ex

d

di

d

fo r a and alf

5 uare , as 0

c c,

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The exac t arrangement o f bond in a ch im ney must d epend up o n th e si z e sh ap e di am e t e r and arrange me nt o f th e fi ne s t h e th i ck ne s s o f th e o ut er wall s th e bond adopt ed in th e build ing and o th er par ti cul ars de p e ndi ng upo n c irc um stanc e s It would o f c ours e be i mp oss ible t o illustrate e ve n a very ,

,

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,

.

A dva nced

88

Building Cons tr uction

s mall po rt ion o f th e vario us arrangem ents re quired by di ffe rent c o m binatio ns o f th e abo ve p art i c ulars Furth er ex ample s c anno t h ere be g i ven b ut i t will be g ood prac tic e t o the student t o draw fo r h i mself th e bond s be st adapt ed fo r c h i mne ys o f di fferen t forms and arrange me nts in doing wh ic h i t i s h op ed that h e will fi nd th e above illustrat ions a u s eful g uide — C h imne y bre asts in st o ne b uildings St o n e C h im n e y s are very o ft e n bu il t wi t h bri c k s wh i c h are be tter ad apt ed th an st one fo r formi ng th e thin wi th e s and wall s required and general ly less expens ive than sound masonry T h e c h i mney breasts and fi ne s are h o we ver fre quently b uil t in r ubble Wh en th e c h imney passe s abov e th e roof it i s o f c ours e nec e ssary th at , fo r th e sak e o f app e aranc e i t sh ould be of th e same m ateri al as t h e wall s o f th e building ge nerally C h i mney s in r ubble are buil t in a very s i m ilar way t o th o s e in bri ck work ; th o s e o f cut sto ne or ash l ar are very varied in for m and de s ign Figs 1 53 t o 1 55 show th e plan and elevat io ns o f a c h i m ney in c ut stone o f a form fre que nt l y u s ed Th e c ap is s upp ort ed by block s, ( 1 d and surmou nted by “ s em icircular term i nal s T T wh i c h are int ended t o preve nt down draughts and t o p ro tec t eac h flue from th e ac tion o f tho s e adj acent t o i t C h im ney Flu e s e spe c i ally th o s e in m as onry are fre quentl y for med wi th e arth enware p i p es whi ch afford b ut little re si st anc e to th e s mok e are free fro m th e obje c tio nable c orners o f bri c k flue s do no t c olle c t th e s oo t and are e as il y k e pt o f uni form s e c t io n th ro ugh o u t ; o n th e o th er h and if t h e i nt ernal surfac e i s too s moo th th e s oo t i s apt t o c ollec t and fall in lumps R EN DER I N G —T h e flues may be rendered i ns ide wi th Port land c e m e nt A R P G ETT I N G T he ordinary m e th od i s h o wever to plaster th e i ns ide o f th e flue over wi th a m i xture o f o ne par t o f li me wi th th ree o f co wth i s form s a t o ugh lining wi th a dung sm oo th s urface and no t s o li able t o c rack as ordi nary mortar .

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A dvanced

0 9

Building Const ruction

C HAPTER V

.

TI MB E R R OOFS .

Subjects Roqfis of

required

ll a s b u S y

by

.

woodf or spans up t o 60 f eel

.

” .

T HE king p o st roo f and s i m pler forms de s c ribed in BB C I) are adapted fo r sp ans up t o 30 fee t Th i s A dvanced C o urs e i nc lude s th e t r usse s ordi narily us ed fo r spans o f fro m 3 0 t o 60 fee t G o th ic and o th er roo fs adapted fo r sp e c ial style s o f arc h i tecture or fo r part icular s i tuatio ns will no t be re ferred to n t u s o f u h e c T russ e s i nvol vi g e rved or buil t up beam s are al s o e xcl uded .

.

.

.

,

,

.

.

—In all

N B fo r ffe rent

di

.

.

pa t

r s are as

A ngle Tie Batt e ns B n ers B lo c ng Co urs e Bo ar ng C e l ng Jo s ts C leat s C o llar Tie C o rn ce F asc a

i d ki di ii

i

i i

G ut ter G ut te rbe are r G ut terplat e King Bo lt Po s t B l o n t uee Q Po s t P

p

ara e t

W all

i

i

i ber

th e figures llust rat ng t m

fo llo ws

ro o fs ,

ve let ters

th e dis tinc ti

Po le Plate Princess Po st Purl n Rafte rs , Pr nc al C o mm o n

i

pp PP P PR ' C lt je j

i ip

i

R dg e So fli t

J

ack

r

fi

St ruts Slates St rai ning Be am

S

s

SB SS

p

Te m lates ( wall) T ie Be am T lt ng F llet Bat t e n T rus s ( Pr nc al) Wall Plates

i i

wt T

i

(f tb

i ip

TP 201)

King and Q u e en Po s t R o o fs King p o st t russ es will do v ery well fo r roofs up t o abo ut 30 fee t span b ut fo r wider roofs i t i s fo und that th e tie beam re quire s support at m ore than th e o ne ce nt ral poi nt addi tional verti cal t ie s c alled queen po sts , have th e refore t o be i ntrod uced, as at Q P Q P, .

,

,

,

Fig

.

1

6 5

.

Tim ber R oofs

1 9

Th e c o mmo n rafters bei ng longer re quire support at m ore th an o ne p oi nt ; t wo purli ns are th erefore i ntro duced o n eac h s ide o f th e roo f ,

.

FIG

Q

.

56

I

0

B i n h w i K t Th is e xc ellent Ro o f t g ol s

n Po s t u ee

.

o nst ruct io n i s sh own in Fi g 1 67 p 98 When a flat t o p i s no t re q uired p urlins wi th c o mm on rafters runni ng do wn th e slop e o f t h e roo f are adopted as in Fig 1 56 and th e ap ex o f th e roof fi ni sh ed as th ere sh own

c

.

.

,

.

,

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,

,

.

E N E PO ST U Q

R OO F S .

Wh en roo ms h ave t o be formed in th e roo f and frequently be side s th e k i ng p ost i s o m i tted in wh ic h c as e to preve nt th e h e ad s o f th e queen p o sts fro m bei ng forc ed inward s a st rai n ing beam i s plac ed be t ween th em as sh own at SB in Fig 1 57 S and th eir fee t are k e pt ap ar t b y a straini ng s ill S T h is form o f roo f i s well adapted fo r sp ans o f from 30 t o f ee t 45 — t Part s o f a Q ueenB o o Th e p art s co mm o n t o all o rd i na y ro o f post aft s uc h as t ie b eam wall p lat e p li ns i dges gut te s e t c h av e n c o n i d e re d in and it re mai ns nly t o g ive a des crip alread y b it o n f th p e culi ar t q ueen-po t o f — P u ee n o u T h se have b t w e n t h em t car y ab o ut g t h we i gh t t Q o f t h e t i b am t o ge t h wi t h t h at f t h c i li ng if any u p nd d t h e upp f m and t h y f q u nt ly h av e t t add i t o nal l ad s b ugh t up o n pac be t ween th q ue n po s ts as a t h t ie b eam by th e o ccupat i o n f t h ,

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q ue en po sts are k ep t apart by a st rai ni ng beam SB n d a t h f a n e F 1 e e r e t o n e n t o i d i b p v d t e i s t h e a m n t e t e e e a n d r e ( g 7 5 fro m mo v i ng i nwards b y a s training s i ll SS e

s of

”

th e

,

”

,

.

A dvanced

94 duct io n

Building Cons t ruction

ddi tional susp e nding p osts

of a

'

Suc h

,

known

PP,

as

Prin

o struc tion as th at sh o wn in Fig 1 60 m ay be us ed fo r sp ans be twee n 45 and 60 fee t In roo fs o f abov e 50 fee t span th e strai ning be am bet wee n th e h e ad s o f th e quee n p osts i s s o long that i t would sag wi th o ut s upp o rt, and th i s m ay be afforded b y m e ans o f a s mal l ki ng tie s usp ended from th e j unc tion o f th e p rinc ipal raft ers wh ic h are p rolo ng ed abo ve th e strai ni ng beam as do tt ed in th e fi gure In a roo f o f th i s ki nd th e spac e be t wee n th e queen p o sts aflo rds c o nv e nie nt ac c o m m odat io n — Th e co n R o o fs o f Sp an s gre at e r t h an 6 0 F e e t s iderat ion o f s uch ro ofs doe s no t fall wi th in t h e lim its o f thi s c o urs e and in t h e s e d ays th e y wo uld ge nerall y be c o nstruc t e d o f iro n R o o fs c o m po s e d o f W o o d an d Iro n fo r Sp ans o f — Th e c h ief use o f wro ught iro n in m o re t h an 4 0 F e e t c o mp o s i t e roo fs i s as a s ub st i tu t e fo r t h e woode n p o sts or s usp endi ng p ie ce s whic h uph old th e t ie beam C ast iro n i s al s o u s ed in th e form o f sh oe s h ead s e tc fo r receivi ng and c onne c ting th e m em bers o f th e truss It i s no t cons idered worth wh ile t o give any ill ustratio ns o f c o mp o s i t e roo fs o f wide span ; th ey are no t i ncl uded in th e Syllabus and have no t bee n m uch us ed s inc e th e i ntro duction o f iro n roo fs — H o rizo n t al R aft ers Roofs are s o m e t i m e s c o nstr uc t ed with h ori z ont al rafters e xt endi ng ac ro ss th e p ri nc i p al s at right Th e s e are in fac t purlins angle s t o th e m as in Fig 1 67 e x cept th at th ey supp ort th e roof co veri ng dire ctl y h aving no rafters up on th e m Th i s i s a stro ng and cheap arrange m ent and sp eci ally co n v e nient wh e n th e roo f c o v ering i s in l ar g e p ie c e s s uc h as sh ee ts o f c orrugated iro n wh ic h can be l aid o n th e raft ers wi th o ut boarding When board s are re quired th ey o f c ours e e xte nd length ways do wn th e slo p e o f th e roo f and th eir e dge s are th us no t so liable t o be soaked wi th wet , in cas e o f a le ak, as th ey are wh e n laid p arallel t o th e ridge a c n

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Timber R oof s

Ro o fs o f V ario u s Sh ap e s at

p

.

1 10

an d

95

t h eir Part s are de scribed

,

A H ipp e d Ro o f i s s lo p ed b ack 1 61 Th e s e terminating s lop e s are ” c al led th e h i pp ed e nd s

th e e nds

at

as

in

Fig

.

.

.

H ip s

”

th e salie nt angle s form ed by th e i nters e ct ion o f th e s ide s and end s V all e y s are th e i nterse ct io ns f r s i m ilarly ormed in e ent ering angles V R R s ee V Fi g ( A Pav ili o n R o o f i s h i pp ed uni form ly at bo th e nd s as sh o wn in Fi g are

.

.

,

,

F IG

.

1

61

.

I 61 .

.

—If H ipp e d R o o fs =

roof term inate s in gable s o nly ordinary p rinc i pals are re quired in i ts c o n struc tion but if i t i s cut into b y anoth er roo f or i s h ipp ed back at th e e nd s sp e c i al arrange m e nts h ave t o be made fo r th e valley s and h ips ” Wh e n a s imple c ouple roof i s h i pp ed dee p and narrow “ ”3 lu o r a f t o er s f m n Fi g 6 2 r a rried ro th e e th e 1 a c d H R e j f ridge to th e angle s o f th e end o f th e b uildi ng and sh ort rafters ” “ c alled n f a u t o i be t ee th e h i p r t er s r a c k r e c fi t n w a s a t t er R j f J and th e wall pl at e s Th e sam e c ours e i s followed in th e valley c aus ed by th e i nt ers e c tion o f t wo roofs valley raf ters or valley pieces being i ntroduc ed as at V R V R in Fig 1 62 In fram ed roofs th e j ac k raft ers fi t in be tween th e h i p rafters and th e wall pl ate s or be t ween th e valley p ie ce s and th e ridge s Fig 1 62 i s t h e pl an and Fig 1 63 a s e c tio nal elevation o f a c oll artie roof c overi ng a b uilding o f irre gular form In th e former fi g ure s H R H R are th e h i p raft ers V R V R the valle y rafters D D th e drago n p ie ce s in t h e angle s (see TT th e t ri mm er s c arry ing th e raft ers round o p e ni ngs p le ft in th e roof fo r c h i mney s skylights e tc Fi g 1 63 sh ows in s e ctio n th e c oll art ie roof tri mmed t o C o n s t ru c t io n

of

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Sc Blends .

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Sc Fiend rafters .

.

96

A dvanced

lear th e c h i mne y, and e nd h i pp ed b ack at F c

Building Cons t ruction

in

elevat io n

th e

gable

.

FIG

.

1 6:

—Scale

FIG

Sectional

E

.

,

1 , inch

3

1

foot .

1 63.

evat ron on

AB

.

end

G,

and th e

A dvanced B uilding Co ns tr uct ion

8 9

th e h ip rafter i s fi x ed i t i s tigh te ned up by driving a n m i t o th e h ole I t p 1— Tri m m in g Wh erever rafters com e across any ob stacle such as a c h im ney th ey must be trim med in th e sam e way as de sc ribed in Par t I fo r floor joi sts Thus in Fi g 1 62 th e rafters t r tr would be m ade th i cker th an th e o th ers and a t ri mm er T framed in be twee n th e m Th e raft ers are si m ilarly t ri mm ed in order t o leav e O p eni ngs for skylights etc as sh own at T Fi g 2 2 1 p 1 3 6 The roof in Fi g 1 4 1 p 8 1 i s tri mm ed t o clear th e ch im ney th e tri mm er i s sh o wn in sec tion at T Th e tri mmers are o fte n plac ed vertic ally and s o me t i me s supp orted in th e c entre by c orbel s p ro trudi ng from th e c h imney After

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I 67 .

— Scale

inch

,

fo o t

1

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Flat t opped Room— Fig 1 67 s o ws a m e t o o f fo rm ng a v e ry nearly flat t o p t o a q ue e n- o s t ro o f Th e st ra n ng e am , SB, is m a e s l g t ly t c e r in t h e cent re , so as t o flat , s u fli c ient ly t o t ro w o ff t h e ra se t h e o st s , j j j, s u o rt ng t h e le a T h e ro lls fo r t h e le a are no t s o wn ( s ee we t So m e t m es raft e rs at a v ery flat s lo e are nt ro uce d a o ve an o rd nary s t ra n ng eam t o carry t h e o s t s A s a c o ns e ra le we g t co mes u o n t h e s t ra n ng eam , it rece v es a ranc t o nal su o rt fro m t wo s t rut s ng nwar s fro m t h e fe e t o f t h e que e n o st s , and e t asun e r y a s m all s t ra n ng ece Fig 1 67 s o ws also n ers fram e d in e t ween t h e t ie e am s

j i

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b

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p

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p bi d

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Sc an t lin g fo r Ro o fs 3 0 t o 6 0

fe e t s p am — Th e follo wi ng table s gi ve roofs o f fro m 30 to 60 fee t sp an .

1

i

th e s ize s

of

t im ber s fo r

Tables qf Scantling s

rs , s uc h T R o o E E N P O S U Q

L I N G S o f T I MBER

g

T ‘e

Span

(

eam ’

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34

38 4° 42 44 46

it

l

n

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St raining

P

1°

9:

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4% by 4 5 3*

5 b y 4*

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99

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Co m mo n Raft e rs , cu

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5 5 5* 5 5*

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3* b y

I NCESSES Ro o rs s uch as in Fig SCANT L I N G S o f T I M BER fo r di fferent Sp ans fro m

U N EE Q of

6 6

n

‘2 ‘

6 6 6 6 6

6 6 6

9:

Be am , SB

QP

5

St rms ’

f 6 ee t 4

to

0 3

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ost ,

b y 4*

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in Fig

as

di ffere nt spans fro m

fo r

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32

-T A BL ES o f SCAN T

6 4

to

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Raft e rs , PR

by

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by 5}

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—End Sect iona l E leva t io n

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Th e fi gure s sh o w th e e nd elevat io n and th e s e ct ion o f a dri p j oi nt o ver a roll Th e thi ck lines Sh ow th e s ect ions o f th e Sh eets th e end s o f wh ic h i t will be not ic ed are be nt i nwards s o th at th e y m ay be able t o e xp and and c o nt rac t wi th ou t d ang er o f any water getting in be h ind the joi nt Th e sto pped e nd o f th e roll cap o n th e upp er le vel i s be nt ov er wi th th e edge o f th e Sh ee t Dri ps in fl ats sh o uld be 2 5 i nch e s dee p and in gutt er s 1 % i nch deep Z in laid wit npat ent d awn Roll Cap — Ano th er fo rm f ro ll p ate nt e d by t h Vi ll Mo nt ague Z i nc C o m p any is eco m m nd d as la t i ng l ng r t h an t h e s i m ple f m j t d e sc i b d and as b e i ng p e uliarly u i t ab le f te a s f wa eh o us e wh e we igh t s a e t e d o wh e e t h ere is flat m h walki ng abo ut ; and as ega d s app earance fo Mansa d o r h i gh of pi t h d Th e m et h o d o f laying zinc with th es e ro lls is so m ewh at si mi lar t o t h at .

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i h th e o rdi nary ro lls b ut th e lo o se zi nc o ll cap is do ne zi nc b e i ng d awn t ig h t o v er t h e ro ll by m ach i ne ry wt

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Wh e n th e z inc i s required t o — a w be l id i th o ut boardi ng wh i c h i s o f c ours e a great sav ing it must be st rength e ned by c orrug atio ns i e b y c ur ved inde n t at io ns or fl ut e s form ed alo ng th e sh ee t The ordi nary c orrugat ed z inc c ons i sts o f fl ut es abo ut 3% i nch e s wide l ying close t oge th er and i t i s l aid up o n p urlins placed about 2 feet 6 i nch e s apart I talian C rug at d Z in R f — In t h i fo m f zi nc th e co rru at io ns g a e p ac d m e wi d ly b i n 1 f o t i n c h a p t a g 3 In F ig 1 9 1 o n h e e t i Sh wn in e ct i n by t h e t h i ck black li ne t h e nd s f t h e adj ac nt h ee ts be i ng s co re d in s ecti o n ,

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Bu ilding Cons truction

A dvanced

1 12

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The y are m uch us ed t o save th e e xp ens e o f lead A c om m o n form in wh i c h th e roll and o ne wi ng are in o ne p ie c e ano th er form h avi ng th e roll and wi ngs is gi v en in Fi g I .

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A dvanced Building Cons t ruction

I 14

In t h e

figur s ill ustrat ing t h is t h e f ll wi ng dis t i nct ive l e t ters A A ch i t ra e B B ack e t NB .

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Th ro at ing T p li ni ng D o tl y z s Z n i p a i li p s T o p rail o f sash c r t n tr p g G ro u n d s are pieces o f wood nailed to p l ugs wood bricks 1 in the wall so as to fo rm a b ree ze fixing blo cks or slips fi rm b asis to which the m ore or name ntal portio ns s uch as m ay b e fixed archit raves lini ngs etc G rou nds are u sed ro und the m argi ns o f ope ni ngs no t o nly to receive the li nings and architraves, b ut t o form a solid fi nis h to the pl astering r a l e d o u n d s M itred or S G a h ve the side ext to the n p y pl astering s played or b evelled as sho wn in Fig 1 94 so as to T his term is form a key fo r the pl aster and secure the joi nt o ften used fo r grounds which are o f a splayed form in plan such as th at in Fig 2 1 3 G rooved G rounds are those which h ave the i nner edge f n a l a a n w ooved i ste d o s p yed to s er the s m e p p ose a r r u e i g that o f affording a key fo r the edge o f the plaster Exam ples are give n in Fig 1 95 and several other fig ures When the joint between the ground and the plas ter is co vered by an architrave the spl ay or groove o n the edge o f W o o d b ricks sli ps pl ugs etc h ave been descri bed in .

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G rounds

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the gro und is o fte n o m it ted as in Fig 2 0 4 It is ho wever b etter to h ave it to form a key fo r and to sec ure the pl aster firm ly until the architrave is fixed — In m ost c ases the gro und Fi nislzed or Wrong/1t G ro unds is ro ugh its surface b eing flush with that o f the plaster o n the walls and concealed b y the architrave fixed to it so m eti mes however either the whole or part o f the surface o f the gro und ” “ is exposed to view ; it is then s aid t o b e fi nished and is wrought b e aded or other wise ornam e nted Fig 2 0 8 sho ws an ex am ple in which the whole o f t h e ground is visi b le In Fig 2 1 2 only part o f the gro und is seen which for m s the fasci a o f an architrave and is e m b ellished b y m o uldi ngs attached to it F ramed G ro unds are used as marg ins fo r openi ngs in superior work They form a sort o f ro ugh fram e generally conceal ed fro m view and co nsisting o f t wo upright sides or posts mortised to receive a head term inati ng in haunch ed teno ns — In order to form a fi rm support to the lini ng B acking between the gro unds cross pieces are dovetailed in b etwee n the uprights 0 f the adj acent fram es as shown in elevation in Fig 2 0 3 and in plan in Fig 2 0 4 and several other figures ; these are firmly attached t o wood bricks whose edges m ay b e or to slips s ee n in elevatio n b ehi nd the m ( see Fig — In ve ry co mm o n work the gro unds Co mmon G ro u nds co nsist o nly o f the upright posts or styles and are no t fram ed i nto a head at all ; in othe r cases a head is provided b ut t h e styles instead o f being fram ed are m erely h alved 0 r n otched into it F axing Gro unds —Th e g ro und h ul d b fi x ed b e fo re t h e pl as teri ng is “ th y f m a sc ee d co m m ence d o r guide t o wh i ch t h e s urface o f t h e p s e co nd o at i flo at ed ( se i m p t ant t hat th g o und sh ul d b e o li dly and It i t h e e fo s u face h uld b pe fe tly t rue a nd and e dg e acc at ly fi x e d t h e i bed by t h e p laste re e as ily di t s o fi m t h at t h y will no t b In fi x ing g unds t h e face f t h g u nd h o ul d p oj ec t ab o ut 2 i nch f m t h nak d wall if it i t b e nde e d r p l as t e ed ; o t h e s am e dis t ance f m t h b at te ns if it is t b e batt ne d l at h d and p l a t ere d Th e i nne e dg s o f g nd f d o and wi nd w p ni ngs h l d b e ke p t pe rfect ly pl mb and eq uidi tant f m t h c nt li ne f t h p ni ng t h e face o f t h e g o und bei ng parall e l to t h at o f th e do o r o r s ash fram e .

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A dvanced Building Cons truct ion

I I6

The width o f s uch gro unds will depe nd upo n their fi nish ; also u p o n t h e nature o f the ope ni ng If there are linings the gro unds m ay be fro m 3 t o 6 inches If the wide the lini ngs bei ng attached to them ( Fig gro unds are wrought the architrave or fillet coveri ng the j unction o f the plaster with the ground m ay lap over abo u t Whe n b oxings are h alf the width o f the gro und ( Fig u sed the gro unds will b e o f s uffi cie nt width to contai n the a n a sh utter d b ck flaps required and may be wrought ( Fig 2 1 2 ) o r c o vered with a doub le fac e d architrave ( Fig — r a e given in pages 1 1 7 1 33 Several exam ples o f gro unds and there descri b ed so t hat it will b e unnecessary to e nter upon them further in det ail at prese nt .

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T Are borders fixed ro und the O pe ni ngs o f doorways or wi ndo ws fo r ornam ent and also to co nceal the joi nt b e t wee n the fram e and the plasteri ng These borders m ay be o f almost any pattern or di me nsio ns t o s uit the character o f the roo m They are som etim es covered with elaborate m ouldings or m ade in the form o f a pil aster The mouldi ngs o f the architrave m ay extend down to the floor as in Fig 1 98 or they may rest up o n b locks or pli nths as in Fig 2 0 2 The arch itrave should ne ver b e fixed until the pl asteri ng is com pleted and quite dry It sho uld the n be placed so as well to cover the joi nt ( see Fig G rounds fixed to the wall are generally p rovid ed t o form a s upport to the architrave and are covered by it ( see Fig B ut in som e c ases as alre ady m e ntio ned the gro und itself forms the face o f the architrave as in Fig 2 0 6 or in i nferior work it m ay serve all purposes as sho wn in Fig 2 0 8 In order to s ave lab our and to avoid large pieces o f timb er architraves are generally b uilt up in parts glued togeth e r Ex amples o f this will be seen in Figs 2 0 5 2 1 6 These parts general ly consist o f a flat portion o r base which is m erely a bo ard b e ade d or otherwise o r nam e nted , A RC H I RAV ES

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A dvanced Building Cons truction

I 18

the fillet m ay b e splayed i e m ade o f tri angular section Fig 1 94 ( ) When the floor is uneve n the lower edge o f the skirti ng ” “ must be to fit it m i lled that is a line is drawn upon it p arallel t o all the irregul arities o f the s urface o f t h e floor and the lower side o f the skirting is c ut t o this li ne The skirting bo ards should b e tongu ed ( or dovetailed ) at the internal angles o f roo m s at and m itred ( see external angles ; in either cas e the top edge o f the joint is The m itred right thro ugh Fm 95 b b e ski r ti n g o rds sho u ld a lso a g, { g S al to ng ued wherever they are pieced in length The hollow behi nd the skirti ng h arb ours vermi n and the pl asteri ng sho uld al ways b e continued down t o the floor so as to fill it up ( Fig 1 96 ) The boards o f skirtings as in all joiners work should b e fixed so as to allo w o f co ntraction and expansion witho ut splitting This m ay be done by fixing o ne side o f the b o ard and ton guing and groovi ng the joint o n the other e dge Several exam pl e s o f o r F m 96 n m skirti gs a be a r i n d t r “fr sw y y seen in the figures illus f a u m o h w ot er p rts joi ers w ork so e ich h ve j st f n o a h n t rat i g been re ferred t o ,

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Skirt ing s Skirting consists

I 19

skirti ngs o ne above the other as in Fig 1 95 The width o f both skirtings m ay be equal as in the illustratio n given The lo wer o ne is so m e t i mes wider th an the other or it m ay be narro wer accordi ng to t aste Skirt ings are o ften for m ed in ce ment and mo ulded b ut such constructions do no t co m e withi n the province o f the joi ner A D o uble

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D ado an d Su r — For the s ake b as e .

ornam ent and to prevent the wall fro m b eing inj ured by ch airs knocked up against it a m o ulded b ar c al led ” “ chair rail is so m e a times fixed at a height o f ab o ut 3 feet fro m the floor and parallel to the skirti ng This rail sho ul d b e fixed t o a narro w hori zo nt al ground and should b e wide e no ugh to cover the gro unds and their j unctio ns with the plastering T h e i nt erv al b e t ween the rail and th e skirti ng is called the D ado D in Fig 1 96 Fm 97 i h S al f t and the ch air rail S B ” “ is called the s urbase o f the d ado— the skirti ng form ing the ” “ base B or as it is so m eti m es calle d the plint b The dado may be either p anelled si mply b o arded or for m ed o nly by the s ur face o f the pl astered wall as in Fig of

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A dvanced Building Cons truct ion

1 20

Fig 1 96 sho ws a ch air rail o r surbase SB and pl astered ” “ dado D with woode n b ase or skirti ng B The chair rail and the upper m o uldi ng o f the skirting are naile d to narro w gro unds g g Fig 1 9 6 fixed to pl ugs i nserted in the wal l A p o rtio n o f the skirti ng is broken away to show the blocki ngs b/e s upporti ng it as descri b ed at p 1 1 7 T h e dado ill ustrated in Fig 1 9 7 is e ntirely o f wood b eing form ed o f wide b o ards grooved and fe athere d and h ung by thi n to ngues o f hard wood j at i ntervals o f ab o ut 3 feet to the narrow gro und g which supports the s urb ase SB T h e bo ardi ng is s t re ngthened and kept together by taper keys b ab o ut 3 feet ap ar t The b oardi ng o f the dado is th us s usp e nded from t h e gro und and is free to expand and co ntract witho ut u pper ope ning the joi nts .

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LIN IN G S .

coverings o f wood so placed as to conceal or There are o rnam e nt portio ns o f the i nte rior o f b u ildi ngs se veral varieties o f li nings distinguished by technical nam es de noti ng the positio n in which they are fixed All lini ngs sho uld be o f narrow b o ards plo ughed or grooved and to ngued or reb ated ; free to expand and co ntract and nailed to b attens fixed to the wall abo ut 2 feet ap art In s uperior roo m s the li ni ngs may b e fram ed and panelled as descri b ed at p 1 65 — n w a T O D o S o v n I N I N G s a b L i n s cover the si es i m L d o f g j the j am b s or ope nings thro ugh walls s uch as doorways Sofi it Linings are those which cover the so fli t or u nder side s o f the arch o r lintel spanning over a door or the i nterio r o f a wi ndo w ope ni ng W I N DO W LI N I N G S are di ffere ntly nam ed accordi ng to their p osition B reas t L inings are those th at cover the portio n o f the wall bet wee n th e i nside ledge or windo w board an d t h e skirti ng These are m ore co mm only called windo w backs B il ow L inings cover the splays o f the wall b et wee n t h e L inings are

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1 22

A dvanced Bu ilding Cons t ruct ion

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s l F igs 2 0 2 2 0 3 2 0 4 give an elevation cross-sectio nal ele vat i o n and pl an respectively o f a fourpanelled i nterio r door with j am b and s o fiit lini ng o f this ki nd Fig 2 0 5 sho ws a portio n o f the pl an e nl arged In this cas e it wil l b e see n th at the door is h ung to t h e u ua

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A dvanced Building Cons truct ion

12 4 '

j amb lining its elf the latter is attached to a b acki ng ba dovetailed in b et wee n the framed gro unds and sec ured to wood bricks in the wall the e dges o f which m ay be seen in elevatio n in Fig 2 0 3 In me case s t h e gro unds a e t o ngued i nto t h e j amb li ni ngs b ut t h is is v ery se l d m d ne Th j am b li ni ngs go ri gh t t h ug h t h e d p th f t h e pe ni ng and o n f th e wall h a e t h e i r e dg s e bat d t ece i e t h e do o n s id ;t h e e dges n th t h er s ide o f th e wall b e i ng ( in up e rio wo rk ) s i m il a ly rebat e d t co rr p o nd Th e s ffi t li ni ng is s ecu ed t c adli ng r back i ng co ns i t i ng o f ro ugh bat t ens att ache d to t h e under side o f th e linte ls o er t h e o peni ng ,

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co urse the doorway m ight b e spanned b y a ro ugh axed arch or by a concrete beam witho ut wood li ntels in which Of

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u n u se the cr dli g o ld be sec red to pl gs let i to the arch u w n a ca or beam unless the b e am were m ade o f coke bree ze co ncrete which will adm it and hold nails Th e nl arge d p l an in Fig 2 0 4 di ffe rs sli gh t ly fr m F ig 2 0 5 i nas much as a s mal ler arc h i t ra e is s h o wn n t h e i ns ide o f t h e doo way ,

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Fig 2 0 6 sho ws the j am b linings with framed and fi nished grounds fo r a door way in a thin partitio n wall In practice 2 0 a f a i n s o ever solid e o ld be pre er ble Fig u w m f r a h w a 7 It wo uld run up and be sec ured to the joists above — s m m n I n w r u n d d o e i n h G co o ork s i F i t / t w n m L n a b i i g j ,

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1 26

A dvaneed Building Cons t ruct ion It will be no ticed that t h e head o f t his win do w is soli d b eing sec ured to the c radling c attached to the under side o f the li nt els W L its i nner e nd being rooved to receive g the to ngued ex t re m it y of the so ffi t lini ng the other e ndo f which is nailed to the gro und The j am b lin ing is grooved at o ne e nd i nto the i nside li ni ng o f the b oxi ng and at the other nailed to the projec t i ng fram ed and fi nish ed ground which form s t h e face o f the architrave It is supported by b eing nailed to the s played wood brick;WB The upper rail the window of b ack is secured to the o ak sill being surm ounted b y a capping c The lower rail rests .

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po n the gro und g the joi nt be ing covered by the m o uldi ng l so t h at the expansio n and co ntraction o f t h e o f the skirting wi ndo w back are no t prevented The j am b lining is here sho wn as fi nished to loo k like shutters someti m es descri b ed as slzam sh utters Whe n the lining is narro w it is o ft e n m erely a plai n b o ard to ngue d if the width requires it wro ught o n face b ut no t fram ed ; whe n m o ulded it is m ade to correspo nd in ap p earance with t h e doors or other p anelled work o f the roo m so t h at t h e b o x e d f am e T h e wo o d b ri ck W B i i nse ted in th i s c as m ay b e nail d t o it o b liq ue ly t h r ugh t h e i n i de li ni ng il b u t it i g n r lly c o nsidered s uffi ci ent t o dri e a wedge in b e t wee n th e b ack li ni n and g ta e wall U

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SH U TT ER S .

d flo o rs,

Wi ndo ws especially those o f gro are freque ntly fitted with shutters fo r security and warmth at night I ns ide Sh utters are fixed o n the i nner side o f the wall o f a b uilding O utside S/zutters are fixed o n t h e o uter side o f the wall Ins ide Sh u t t e rs are h ung in several diflerent ways which may be ge nerally arranged under t wo heads — In le aves h i nged together and foldi ng back 1 F olding into recesses or box ing s prepared fo r the m — i 2 Slid ng In leaves slidi ng up and do wn and co unter b al anced by weights in t h e s am e way as slidi ng sashes ; or s lidi ng laterally u po n rollers in and o ut o f recesses form ed fo r them at the sides o f the windo w — FO LDI N G SHUTT ERS A recess or b oxi ng fo r these is for m ed in the sp ace betwee n the i nside lini ng o f the s as h frame and the fram ed gro und at the back o f the architr ave The back o f this recess is plastered in co m mo n work b ut in b etter work it is covere d by a l ini ng c alled the b ack ” lining This b ack lining h as o ne e nd to ngued i nto the inside In pract i c e it is mo re usual t f am e th e wi ndo w b ack and e lb o ws wi th flus h be ade d ski rt i ng ( I ) To av id t h di fficul ty o f s t o pp i ng t h p oj ec ting sk irt i ng agai n t t h a ch i t a e ( 2 ) in de t o m ake t h e f am ing fr m flo o r Th e flush b e ad anges wi th t h e t o p o f t h e o rdinary u p wa d in o ne p i e ce s ki rt i ng un

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A dvaneed Bu ilding Cons truction

128

li ning o f the sash fram e and the other housed or to ngued i nt o the gro und b ehi nd the architrav e In Fig 2 1 2 the architrave is fixed to a fi nished gro und i nto which the back li ning is groove d As the i nterior o f the b oxi ng is exposed to v ie w whe n t h e the back o f the gro und is so m eti m e s s h utters are closed covered fo r the sake o f appearance b y a return l i ni ng such as th at m arked 1 in Fig 2 1 3 The leaf whi ch is ex p o sed to vie w duri ng th e day may b e fram ed and p anel led like the doors o f t h e roo m and is called 1 the sh utter the re mai ni ng le aves are called the back fl aps The back fl aps if they exceed 6 or 7 i nches in width are fram e d but m ay be o f a plai ner d escriptio n o f p anelli ng o r so metim es no t p anelled at all In m ost o f the acco m panyi ng ill ustratio ns the sh utter and flaps are sho wn as fram ed square o n the o uter si de and bead fl ush o n the i nner side The inner side is o ften fi nished bead b utt fo r the s ake o f eco no my ; or the fl aps are o fte n fram e d square o n b oth sides or m o ulded o n o ne or both side s according to the cl ass o f work In the very best work ho wever the sh utters and flaps are all m ade the s am e o n b oth sides so th at when closed they will al l app ear alik e whether see n fro m the i nterior o f the roo m or t hrough the gl ass fro m the outside In h angi ng sh utter s the k nuckle o f the hi nges o f the fron t l eaf sho uld b e abo ut h al f an i nch fro m the i nne r angle o f the — i nside li ning so th at the whole width fro m o ne ex t re m ity o f the shutters to the other when they are o pe n is an inch m ore than the width o f the wi ndo w ope ning The flap s are co nnected by s mall b ack-flap hi nges fixed as sho wn or by b utt hi nges attached to the edges o f the fl aps I n the for m er case the sh ut t e rs whe n folded back are ke pt apart by ne arly the thick ness o f the hi nge and there is roo m fo r an iro n b ar or other faste ni ng t o h ang b et wee n t h e m — l o S/zutter and One F p When the O pe ning is narro w or the wall o f co nsiderab le t hick ness the sh utter m ay be h ung in t wo le aves as in Figs 2 1 1 2 1 2 ,

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A dvanced Building Cons truction

I 30

Fig 2 1 2 and so m e o f th e followi ng figures the dott e d l i nes show the p osition o f the sh utters and flaps while in the ac t o f b ei ng closed — n d T t er a w o l F aps When a windo w opening is wide Sh ut O r the wall in which it is form ed is n o t very thick there is n o t so m uch room fo r sh utters in proportio n to their width an d they h ave to be folded i nto a g re ater num b er o f leaves in order th at they may take up less roo m in the thickness o f the wall Fig 2 1 3 is the hal f-plan o f a windo w with the sam e O pe n ing as t h at in Fig 2 1 2 b ut in a wall o nly 1 foot 6 i nches instead o f 2 feet thick The shutter in th is case is necessarily folded i nto thre e le aves ; the t wo b ack fl aps b eing very narro w are no t fram ed The li ni ng l at the b ack o f the gro und g is o nly to pre s erve a ne at appe arance withi n the b oxi ngs whe n they are e m pty ; it m ay b e o m itted and the b ack li ni ng o f the boxi ng prolo nged to m eet the b ack o f the gro und There are m any m ethods o f arranging foldi ng sh utters which vary considerably accordi ng to the le ngth o f shutter s required and the space avail able fo r them to fold into In

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gai ni ng roo m fo r sh utters is to m ake the boxi ngs proj ect i nto the roo m as shown in Fig 2 1 4 or when of

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S/i ut ters

1 31

the wi ndo ws are separated by very narro w p iers the sh utters may be arranged as in Fig 2 1 5 made to exte nd i nwards far Where the maso nry cannot e no ugh to form a s upport fo r the li ni ng at the back s uch sup o f the sh utters port is afforded by woode n brackets fi xed to the back o f t h e p ier and exte ndi ng i nwards as far as may b e required arrange m e nt Another fo r shutters to cover a wi ndow in a t hi n wal l is s ho wn in Fig 2 1 6 In this c ase the larger p “ i ” flap o f the sh utter folds b ack upo n the i nner si de o f the wal l and is exposed to vie w b ei ng c o nnected wit h the b oxi ng o f the windo w b y a shor t ,

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the j am b li ning The elbow o f t h e wall is li ne d in order to pre se nt a ne at appearance whe n the sh u tters are closed r a n This is ther a Old fashioned arrangement b ut ve ry use ful in s o me s it uatio ns flap which form s

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A dvanced

I 34

Bu ilding Cons t ruct ion

O n the fro nt side they lie close to the i nside o f the wall, and o n t h e othe r they are scre e ned b y a fram ed back ( B a in Fig 2 r .

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The t wo leaves o f th e sh utter slide in different and p arallel — w n n b a t h s the pp e r o e bet ee the e d n the f ro n t u o a p lining o f the sh utter frame and the p arting be ad : the other ,

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Sleut ters

1 35

betwee n the parting b ead and a bead fastened o n to the inside li ni ng o f the s ash fram e The sh utter 8 ne arest to the wal l is the lower o f the two whe n they are close d It is som ewhat larger th an the other being o f s uch a height that it will extend from the top o f t h e flap or cappi ng to the upper edge o f the m eeti ng r ail Th e other shutter fills up the sp ace bet wee n the u pp er edge o f the m eeti ng rail and the top o f the wi ndow The top o f the well is closed whe n the sh utters are down by a hori zontal hinged flap and vertical fl ap s conceal t h e parting be ad etc when the shutters are no t closed Slidi ng sh utters are use ful whe n there is no t a sufficie nt thickness o f wall b ehind the sash to receive folding sh utters Fig 2 1 8 is a plan o f part o f t wo adj ace nt windows separated by a narro w pi er or mullio n and fitted with li fti ng shutters and Fig 2 1 9 is a vertical sectio n o f the s am e O n the le ft o f the plan the flap over the well fo r the sh utters is supposed to be standing vertically O pe n alo ng F0 F 0 so t h at the upper rails o f the sh utters are visible with the fl ush h andles fo r li fti ng the m Th e vertical flap is also open and folded b ack O n the right o f the figure b oth flaps are closed In so m e cases the b o xi ng fo r sh utters is so arranged that its o utside li ni ng is formed by the inside lini ng o f the cased frame fo r the sashes wh ich is a m ore eco no m ical constructio n than that sho wn in Fig 2 1 8 b ut no t so co nve nient a e t h o e in wh i ch t h e flap s s lid l at e ally i nto recess es Sliding Sl mtt fo me d o n e ach i de o f t h wi ndo w Such an arrange m e nt can nly b e ado p t ed wh e n th ere i a co n i de abl e It p o sse ss es no p a t i cul ar advantages s pace o n e ach s i de o f t h e wi ndo w and cann t h e e b e d sc ib d A g o d ill ust rat i o n o f h ut te rs s li di ng l at erally will b e fo und in Laxto n s Ex ample of B uilding Con t ru t ion vo l iii P l at e 37 n O u t s ide Sh u t t e rs fo r d welli g h o uses are ge nerally h ung — so mewh at like doors in t wo leaves o ne — which are fixed to the o ut o n e ach side side lini ng (or to a fillet plugged to the 5* wall in fro nt o f the o utside lining) with a m a r l i e n t e bi n s w by hich it is e led n a b g p to clear the reveal and fold back upon t h e wall ; see Fig 2 2 0 Fm m .

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A dvanced Bu ilding

Co ns t ruction

For sh Op fronts shifting sh utters are used the appe aranc e o f which is fam iliar to all Any descriptio n o f the m wou ld be beyond the range o f this course ,

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SKYLIG HT S AN D

S Skyliglzts are wi ndo ws either fixed in roo fs or the mselve s form ing the roo f o f a stairc ase or other b u i ldi ng l ighted fro m above They are very varied in form accord ing to the posi t io n in wh ich they are fixed In m any cases the skylight is raised up o n vertical or slightly i ncli ni ng fram es filled in with s ashes whic h form its sides ( Figs 2 2 4 it then freq uent lv called a Lantern T

LA N ERN

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The m ost com m o n form o f skylight is p erh aps that in wh ich the s ash is p arallel to the slope o f the roo f and slightly raised above the s urface o f the slating as in Fig 2 2 1 A n ope ning is form ed in t h e slope o f the roo f ( by tri m mi ng the co m mo n raft ers C R) fo r the sam e si ze as the proposed 1 skylight ; a lining is attach ed to t h e i nner sides o f th e tri mm ers T T and o f the tri mming rafters exte ndi ng a fe w “ U sually call e d a cnrb o r ke b and do ve tail ed at th e angl es ,

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A dvanced Bu ilding Cons t ruct io n

1 38

i des o f th e quee n po sts ha e backing p ieces fi xed to t hem a yi ng a li ni ng s o as t o co nve t t h e i nt e rval i mm ediat e ly unde r t h e s ky ligh t into a shaft o r bo x i ng In so m e cas e f t h e ake o f app ea an e t h e l wer e x t re mi ty o f t h is h aft i fi ll d in wi th a sa h Sa call d a nt ky ligh t o eiling l g/ct k ee p t h e p lane o f t h e c eili ng al m o t unb ke n o a t c nt ai ni ng gl a T h e kyligh t o l ant e rn at B i ai ed t wo r t h ee fee t ab e t h e oo f nt ai ning a h e s wh i h m ay e i t h e b e fi x ed b y m eans o f f am d i de e n by be i ng h i ng d at t h t p m ade t o ( a in F ig 2 2 5) h u ng o n cent es 1 o f t h e f am e d ides i fi x ed t a c app i ng o c u b wh i ch e st s T h e ip te d by t h e h ad o f t h q u e n p o s t s upo n a c o ss be a e r supp Th is f m o f kylight g i es mo e ligh t and ent ilatio n t han th at at A b ut is o f co urse co nsi de ably m o re e x pe ns i i

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A dvanced Building Cons truct ion

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ill b e no ti ed t hat th e i nside b ead Fig 2 2 6 is so fi x ed upo n t h e s ill t h at t h e skyligh t wh e n cl o se d do e no t h u t u p ag ai n t it b ut an nt e al i l ft wh ich fo m a g u t t e t ce i t h e co nde n d m i st u e f o m t h A groo e cu t in t h e il l e nabl e t h i wat e t o e c ap s ash Su h a l ant e n a t h at sh o wn in Fig 2 2 6 m ay i t l f f m t h e f f a t ai r a in wh i h a e t h e ak i ll f rm i ng t h e b a e f t h a h wo u l d s t u p n t h e c o p i ng f t h e walls f t h e tai a W h en t h ide a h es o f a l ante n a e fi x ed am pl e p ro i i n s h ul d b e m ade f a yi ng fl th e m i tu wh i ch o nd n e o n th e i ns i de f t h n a s a d h a s a n d l t e e n y t o run do wn g int t h e ro m b l o w Th i m ay b e p ente d by p o iding a wid ak s ill p j e ct i ng in wa ds an i n h t wo o a t gi e o m fo r a dee p g fo m ed o n t h e i n i de i nt wh i h t h e nd n ] m i t u e uns and f o m wh e nce it i F 7 l d b ut wa d by h o l e o red t h ro ug h S l i h f t th ill O th i n i de h e ad n t h e o ak s il l m ay b ke pt a li tt l back fro m t h o e so a t fo m a gu t t er as e x p l ai ne d ab o ve and h o wn in n t h e si d It w

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m m a a is so eti es dvis ble to c on g struct the slightly i ncl ined sashes o f a skylight so as to ope n by slidi ng In s uch a c ase it is i mport ant to keep the rai n fro m pe ne t rat ing b et wee n the fram e and the s ash This m ay be done by arranging as in Fig 2 2 8 The sash S slides do wn t h e frame F upon a little bras s friction roller r fixed in the fram e s t is a stop o n the sash which strikes agai nst the block bl attached to the fram e and arrests the fall o f the s ash whe n it h as go ne far e no ugh c is a c apping pro t e c tin g the upper f t S li fifi s urface o f t h e jo Int betwee n the sash m s n u n A a additio nal preca tio an angle iro n water and fra e b ar may b e i nserted as sho wn so as to preve nt any water running If in o ff the s ash fro m pe netrati ng sideways at the p oi nt x Spite o f this any water sho uld p e netrate it will fi nd itsel f in the gro o ve g which leads it o ff through the lo wer end o f the fram e .

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h all openi ngs bei ng le ft in the upp er floors so as to allo w headway fo r perso ns o n the steps and to furnish c o mm unica tion between the stairs and the di fferent stories o f th e b uildi ng In such a c ase the stairs are ge nerally though no t ne c e s s arily pl aced agai nst a wall as shown in Fig 2 2 9 and t h e o pe ni ng is tri mm ed ro und ( see In Factories or si m ilar large b uildi ngs the staircas e sho u l d b e in a to wer projecti ng from the b uildi ng so that it m ay in c ase o f fire be intact The best m aterials for fireproo f stai rs are first wro ught iro n the n cast iro n then h ard wood with plastered s o fii t With regard to stone steps see note p 1 4 6 Tread is th e h orizo ntal upp er s urface o f t h e s tep upo n whi ch t h e foo t is placed R i e is t h e vert ical h eigh t be t ween t wo t reads rt i cal po t i n o f t h e s t e p is t h e face o r Ri In m o s t cases it p roj e cts b eyo nd N o ing is th e o ut e r edge f t h e t end f t h e ri se r and is ro u nde d o o rnam e nte d by a m ul di ng b ing t h e fa e “ mo ul ded no si ng ( s ee Fig S kno wn a co dingly as a ro unded o r ,

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y ste p o f r ctangular shap e in p lan ps o f t i angul a t aper fo rm in an equi re d in Th e s mall endp l o f winders are t u ni ng a c o rne r o r go i ng ro und a cur e s o me t i m e s c all ed t h e qu in A Cu t ail Step is d s c ibe d at p I 68 n n s t t a a n d u d f w o t i n se i es e p s i h u l i t i c o t a s n A F lz g g p lace at t h e t o p o f any fligh t A Landing is t h e flat res t i ng s t h w n n n d n s e d o i s a l a d i e x t e i i h t a c i t h f i a c h e s t r t a A Half S g g p g n t n d r o ss t h e e i n a f a c e c i s a l a n d i x h l d h o a w i t f t h e A Quart e S g g p s tai rcas Going qf a St ai is t h e h o riz nt al di st ance fro m th e face o f o ne rise r t t h e face o f t h e ne t i e and does n t i nc l ude t h e no s i ng o r t h e p o ec tio n o f t h e t e ad be yo nd t h e fac e o f t h e ri se r j Th e t e rm is h o we e s o me t i m es t aken to m ean th e wi dth o f th e s tai th at is t h e l engt h o f t h e s t e ps Tlt G oing of a Fligh t is t h e h o i zo ntal di st ance fro m t h e fi rs t t o th e l as t ise r in th e fligh t l L ine of N osi ng is t angent t o th e no si ngs o f th e s t p s and t h us p a all l t th e incli nat io n f t h s tai r N ewels are po s ts o o l m ns used in s o me k i nd o f s t ai rs t o rece i ve th e “ e nds o f s tep s ( se newe l is so m e o ut e F igs 2 58 T h e name appli ed t o t h e fi nal b al us t e t im n a c urtail s t e p W hen t h e newel s surro nd a c nt ral o p eni ng as in Fig 2 61 th e s tair i aid t o h a e an op n n e ca 7 7w Hand ail is a ro unde d m o ul de d rail pa all e l n a ly th ro ug h o ut it l e ng th to th e gene al i ncli nat i o n o f t h e s tair and at su h a h igh t f o m t ai s t h e t e p as t o b e co nveni e nt ly g as ped by a p ers o n o n t h B alu t s are sligh t p st ba suppo t i ng th e handrail i

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tructed in very cram pe d positions with steps only 1 fo ot 9 inches long b ut as a r ule steps sho uld no t be less than fro m a w w t eet lo g a s to llo o people to p a ss a n d f n s o i n to 4 3 s uperior b uildings they are very m uch longer The stairs in the ill ustrat ions giv en with these N otes are necess arily sho wn narro w fo r want o f sp ace — The angle o f asce nt fo r a stair will depend Tread and R ise upo n the tot al height to b e gai ned bet wee n the floors and t h e s p ace th at c an be afforded in plan The wider the step the less the rise should b e as s teps which are b oth wide and high req uire a gre at exertio n to cli m b Authorities differ sli ghtly as to the proportio n betwee n the tread and riser the follo wi ng t able is given by Mr Maye r in Ne wland s Carpenter s and j oiner s A ss istant T T Ri d Ri d

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sions ordi narily require d in practice , i e nches to 1 4 i nches wide i 9 VVidth o f t re ad h e ig h t o f i e 66 i n h e Thus wit h a t read o f 1 2 i n h e s i wo uld b e 5} i nches ; wi th a riser o f 6 i nch e th e t ead wo ul d b e 1 1 i nche s Th e ru l e ad p t ed in F ance wh e e t h e y h a é g i e n great at t nt i n t o th e ubj e t i as fo ll o ws Ina m uch a o n t h a e ag h um an b i ng m e h riz ntally 2 fe e t in a s t i d and a t h e l ab r o f i i ng t i ally i f m i ng h i z nt ally t h wi dt h o f t h e t re ad added t t wi ce t wi c t h at th he ig h t o f t h e ri s s h o u l d b e e q ual t o 2 fe e t The proportion th at the tread and riser b ear to o ne another cannot al ways in practice be fixed b y rule b ut is regulated by — — a a s r n a n the sp ce e gards both pl a d height th at can b e afforded fo r the stairc ase .

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A dvanced Building Co ns truct ion

I 44

The tread o f a step sho uld ho wever ne ver be l e ss th an 9 i nche s in width eve n fo r the co m mo nest stair ; whi le fo r fi rs t class houses and p ublic buildi ngs the stairs may h ave treads from 1 2 to 1 4 i nches wide b f l z t s w n n sho u ld he possi le co sist n t ore th F lz o o m n 2 1 a g or 1 3 steps after which there sho uld b e a landi ng so that we ak people m ay have a rest at short i ntervals T wo co nsecutive flights o ught no t to be in the s ame directio n ,

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A St raigh t St air is o ne in which all the steps are parallel to o ne another and rise in the s am e directio n— th us 1i perso n asce nding m ove s for ward in a st raight li ne .

Figs 2 33 2 34 2 56 2 57 sho w plans and sectio ns o f straight staircases the form er in stone and the latter in wood these are described at p ages 1 48 1 60 Such a stair is fo r so m e re aso ns very conve nie nt b ut c an o nly b e u sed whe n there is a considerable l ength o f space av ailable fo r the staircas e com p ared with the h eight to be i n ed a g Whe n th is is no t the case the flight o f steps are made to run in di ffere nt directio ns s o th at they are do uble d up i nto a shorter space Flights runni ng al ternately in o pposite directions are found to be a great relie f in asce ndi ng a co nsiderable height and there fore a very long straight stair is objectionab le A D o g l e gge d St air is so called fro m its b eing b ent or crooked suddenly round in fancied resem blance to a dog s leg In this form o f stair the alternate flights rise in opposite directions, as indicated b y the arro ws in Figs 2 35 2 38 and .

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Advanced Bu ilding Cons tr uct ion

1 46

This ne wel m ay be either solid or hollow ( see p A C I RC U L AR G EO MET R I C A L STA I R is in for m the s am e as the l ast descri b ed b ut there is no ne wel The steps co nverge as be fore b ut rise ro und an open well hole i nste ad o f resti ng up o n a ne wel ( p .

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STO N E STA IRS .

Stone Stairs h ave

dvantage over those o f wood inas much as they are m uch si mpler in co nstruct ion b ut the steps are he avy and require s ub st anti al walls fo r their s uppor t ; moreover they becom e s m ooth under the frictio n o f cont inued wear and the n are slip p ery and d angero us an a

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ge nerally solid blocks and should b e} worked o n th e tread and rise the form er being fo r external steps slightly weathered or the sto ne set with a slight inclina a tio n o utwards In superior buildi ngs the s o flit also is w orked and th e nosing may be m o ulde d as sho wn in Fig 2 3 1 Steps and landings th at cannot be got o ut in o ne s tone must be o f pieces jointed joggled and pl ugged togeth er ; in s ome cases it is necessary to s upport the landings o n girders Stone steps are so m eti mes form ed with th in flags form ing treads and risers si m ilar to those o f wooden steps Suclr are

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1 48

i k o f damage to t h e steps i nd nts abo ut 9 i nch es deep may be le ft in t h e wall and t h e st ep s i nse rt ed aft rward ; t h ey h ul d b e p i nned in wi t h f o ld aws e t c c e m nt and i ro n p acki ng o f h o p i o n p i S me t i me abo ut 1 2 i nch es o f th e walli ng abo ve and be l o w th e s teps is b uil t in cem ent r s

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—Sect ion

Arran ge m en t s o f

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— St o n e St airS l

.

ST RA I G HT

show a straight stair co m posed o f square steps s upported at each e nd by b ei ng b uilt i nto t h e side walls Fig 2 34 is a horizont al sectio nal pl an (looki ng do wnwards) through step No 1 2 The steps h ave 9 i nches tread and 7 i nches rise and b et wee n the flights ( each co nsisting o f 9 steps) is pl aced a landi ng DO G LEO G ED ST AI R S in sto ne are ge nerally co m posed o f h angi ng steps the Inner e nds o f wh ich are firmly buil t i nto the walls o f the st aircas e while the o uter e nds o f o ne flight are in the sam e plane as those o f the other flight Fig 2 3 5 is a sectional plan ( looki ng downward s) o n th e sixtee nth step Fig 2 36 is a s ectional ele vatio n o n th e line 1 fo o t F i gs 2 332 49 are o n a scale o f t i nch .

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give illustrations o f a geom etric al stair sto ne with a narro w well hole having a semicircular end .

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Sto ne Stairs

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Fig 2 40 is a sectional plan made th ro ugh the sixteenth step looking downwards ; Fig 2 4 1 a vertical sectio n thro ugh the lo wer flight and elevatio n o f the upper flight beyo nd ; and Fig 2 42 a fro nt elevation o f the staircase showing the faces .

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the risers o f step s o f lo wer flight and the backs o f the steps o f the upper flight The stair is co nstructed with spandril steps and witho ut landi ng except at the floors the space bei ng entirely filled with wi nders the i mproved form o f which as co m pared with the tri ang ular wi nders o f the dog-legged stair will be evident upo n co mparing Fig 2 40 with Fig 2 38 Fig 2 43 sho ws a geo m e trical stair ad apted fo r a large and wide staircase This stair consists o f three AB S g flights and t wo quarter space la ndi ngs besides a large and wide l andi ng ( to which the stairs lead) o n the level o f the floor ab ove The position and directio n o f the steps will be easily understood fro m the plan witho ut elevations, sectio ns or further expl anati on of

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2 5

ter space

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som e cases the i er cor ers the q landi ngs ab utting o n th e well hole are cut o ff and m ade in plan o f a quadrant shape by which the curve o f the handrail is i mproved at these points Such a stair t akes up a gre at deal o f room and is only s u itable fo r large and i m portant buildings where s uflicient space can be afforded fo r the stairc ase In Fig 2 43 a l anding o f the whole width o f th e staircas e In

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is sho wn at the level o f the 2 9th step O f course if the arrangem ents required it a quarter space l anding at t his point wo uld be s uffi ci ent ; fro m it wo uld le ad a flight parallel t o steps 1 0 to 1 8 and runni ng in the O pposite directio n C I R CU LAR STA I RS in stone m ay be c o mposed either o f steps supporte d at both e nds or o f h angi ng steps converging to ward a well hole in either case o f course all the steps are winders C I RC U LAR NEWEL STA I R S consist o f square ste p s s upported “ by the wal l at o ne end and at the other end by a ne wel or col umn o f maso nry to wards which they co nverge in th e ce ntre .

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A dvaneed

I 54

Building Cons t ruct ion

Each st e p is wo rke d in t h e fo rm sh o wn in Fig 2 4 7, wit h a c irc ul ar po r t io n o n th e i nner end, h aving a di amet er e q ual t o .

i nt ended ne wel As t h e s t eps are b uil t up t h e o ut er e nds are sec ure d in t h e wall o f th e s taircas e while t h e circular po rt i ons at t h e i nner e xt rem i ty being laid o ne upo n ano t her giv e th e st ep t h e require d s uppo r t and fo rm t h e newe l o f t h e s tair C IRCU LAR G EO MEI RIC AL ST AIRS c o nsi st e ntirely o f hang ing wi nders b uil t i nto t h e o ut er wall o f t h e s t airc as e and co nvergi ng t o ward an o pen circul ar well h o le down t h e cent re Figs 2 48 2 49 sh o w ill us t rat i o ns o f such a s tair Fig 2 4 8 being a s ec t io nal plan o n No 2 0 s tep and Fig 2 49 a sect io nal elevat i o n t h at

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ligh t er th an th o se o f s t o ne and do no t require such s tro ng suppo rt s T hey are al so mo re elast ic a nd do no t bec o m e s o sm o o t h under wear as t o be dangero us O n t h e o ther h and t hey are subjec t t o decay t hey may be m o re rapi dly de stro ye d in c as e o f a fire and m ay t hus cut o fl all e x i t fro m t h e upper fl o o rs are

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Wootzelt Stairs ’

Letter s

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I 55

figu re s co nnec t e d

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ir a! Lat h s A pr o n li ni ng B O ut r s t ri ng Bal t e rs I Pi t h i ng pi e ce B ar r Pla t e r Bl k B Ri er B ra k t 1f Ro ugh brack t B ri dgi ng i i t s o f flo o r o R u gh t i ng b are rs Cr S fli t j o i t F ill t fl T r a d F rri ng f o m m T ri G l d bl k g T ri m m i ng j o i ts o f fl o o r HR H andrail n W a l s n i l t ri f l d n a o t s o j g g J ALE — Th e h andrail s a e sh wn in t h e el e vat i n in o rde r t o m ak e t h e m i t t d in t h dir t i n o f t h t ps mo r pl ai nl y vi de nt ; b t t h y a u T k m sc h e t n l f r r ri h e o b r ir i l i n f a f n a a a o n d t o m tted g g p fro m th e pl ans T h e pl a t e r o f t h e wal l is also o m i t t ed fr o m bo th pl ans and se ct i o ns o f t h e fi gur e o n a m all s cale st a s

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are t hick b o ards W o o den St airs o r piece s o f t i m ber place d at an i ncli nat i o n t o s uppo rt th e s t eps o f a wo o de n stair — Wo o den stairs o f th e c o m mo ne st de scri pt i o n Cu t Strings “ are t h us c o nst ruct e d T wo strings SS are fi xe d at th e sl o pe de t e rm i ned upo n fo r t h e stairs in the se rec t angular no t che s are c ut each equal in de pt h t o t h e ris e and in wi dt h nearly equal t o t h e tread o f a st ep : b oards are upo n t he s e naile d fo r mi ng th e t re ads t and ri s ers r

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A dvanced

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h o wever t h e st e ps require addit io nal suppo rt and t hi s is affo r de d by m eans o f o ne o r m o re ro ugh “ st rings or carri ag es fi xe d in t h e i nt er val be t ween th e wall s t ri ng and o ut er s t ri n a lre y e cri e a d d s b d g T wo r o ugh strings are sh o wn in Fig 2 57 fo r t h e sake o f illust rat io n b ut o ne o nly wo ul d be nece ssary in so narro w a s t airc as e 3 o ne ro u h s t ri n 2 59 i i h s s w n i n F o g g g T h e scant li ng fo r ro ugh st ri ngs m ay be ab o u t t h e s am e as t h o se fo r bri dgi ng flo o rj o i s ts o f t h e same le ngt h T h e r o ugh s t ri ngs so m e t i m e s h ave s mall n o t che s o n thei r upper s urface s t o recei v e t h e b ck e d e o f t h e t re ad and t heir g a e nds are att ached t o t ri m m i ng j o i sts T] ( see Figs 2 56 o r i nt o pi t chi ng piece s P ( Fig o r t ri m mer s T ( Fig where t ri m m i ng j o i st s are no t available WOOD EN STEPS are fo rm e d o f b o ards as sh o wn in Fig 2 55 s ta s ,

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j o int be t ween th e t re ad and ri ser is stre ngt hene d by s m all bl o ck s oz gl ue d i nt o t h e i nner angle as sh o wn in s t e ps i u t n a r n n a o t a he e be ei her rec l r ri u l r t a t a n m a d s g g 3 4; y s ec t i o n T h e i nner e nds o f t h e t re ads re s t upo n t h e ro ugh stri ngs RS ( if any) and t hey are freque nt ly further s up s ri att ache d t o t h e r o ugh s t ri ngs o r r e by r h r cke t t o u a d b o g p carriages T he s e bracket s m ay be piece s naile d al o ngs i de t h e st ri ng an a u r s x i o t ri l r iece fi e d u er as in st eps I 2 t o t s 4 g p 3 pp s urface as in 5 and 6 O ccas i o nally v er t ic al bracke ts are m ade o f a wi dt h equal t o t h at o f t h e t re ad o f t h e s t e p as at 99 in Fig 2 58 In s o me c as e s a b o ard is no t che d o ut like a c ut s t ri ng and naile d al o ngs i de t h e ro ugh st ring t o answer i ns t e ad o f t h e ro ugh bracket s ( se e Fig T h e t re ads projec t o ver t h e ri s ers and are fi ni she d wi t h a ro unde d o r a m o ulded no s i ng t h e projec t i o n o f t h e no sing bei ng generally equal t o t h e t hickne ss o f t h e t re ad Whe n a m o ulde d no s i ng is ado pt ed wi t h an o pe n string t h e m o ul di ng is re turne d at t h e e nd o f t h e st ep bei ng m it re d at th e angle as s h o wn at Fig 2 52 T h e m o ul dings are ge nerally pl ant e d o n u nder t h e ro unde d no s i ng o f t h e t re ad T h e t re ads sh o ul d be o f o ak o r o ther h ard wo o d and may — e n f f b i ch t hick o r s t eps 4 ee t l o ng t h e t hick ne ss bei ng increase d by i nch fo r e very 6 i nche s adde d t o t h e le ngth o f t h e st e p In very c o mmo n st airs t h e ri s er s are s o me t i m e s di spe nse d wi th In s o m e case s e specially in ge o m et ric al s tairs o f a high class, t h e upper e dge s o f t h e ri sers are do ve tailed t o t h e t reads and t h e back o f t h e t re ads s cre we d u l er e e t f h w d o h o t t e o e p g risers D iderant F o rm s o f W o o den St airs — ST RAIG H T S TA m s -In very narro w stairs o f o rdi nary co nst ruct i o n wi th a wall o n o ne side o nly t h e fo ll o wi n i r ll s h a r n t e a n e m e t u s u a g g y ado pt e d Th e

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O PEN N EWEL STAIRS h ave ne wel s range d r o und an o pe n ing o r well h o le in t h e ce nt re be t wee n t h e fligh t s o f st eps .

r space

n n a d l h ir i h r l i g p Th e bo ardi ng o f t h l andi ng and th t re ad f t h e l we r fligh t a e o m i t t ed o n plan in o rd r t o sh w t h e c ns t r uct i n b e l o w T h e t r eads o f th e l o wer fl igh t F g 2 60 is a e t i nal l vat i n n A B m i tt ed fr m pl an are h wn in e l v at i n t h o gh t r aigh t p r t i n o f t h e t air is s i m il ar t wh at T h e co n t r ct i o n f t h T h e wi nding s t eps are co ns tr uc t ed as h as alre ady b e en de sc ribed fo ll o w are framed i nt o t h e ne we l s t h eir o ut e r B ar e r s t o carryi ng t h e rise rs r s t i ng in th wall f t h e t airca e B t w e n th m a fi e d c ro s e nd b ar rs o T h e e w uld no t b e n ce sary in a narro w stair cas e b ut a e i ns rt d in F ig 2 6 1 f t h sake o f ill t rat i n am pl f ur w i nd r a i nt r duc d t o sho w th e de fe cts o f such In t h i s an arrang e m e nt a p i nt ed ut at p 1 45 In F ig 2 6 1 -2 63 t h e skir t i ng is o m i t t ed in t h at po r t i o n o f t h e pl an wh ere t h e t read a e s h o wn

2 61 sh o ws th e

Fig

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A dvanced

1 64

Building Cons tr uct ion

F IG

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Wooden Stairs

I 67

rved f rm terminati ng in a circular bl o ck wh ich fo rms th e base to s upp r t t h las t bal ust r r newel Th e i nn r s i de o f t h e s taircase is fi ni h ed and e m be lli h e d by a skirt in g no t ch e d o n t h e unde r side t o fit t h e s te r rr r a n d se c u e d o n t a w o o u n ds p g u e d l to th e wal l p gg cu

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r l

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a Scale

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,

1 in ch

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fo o t

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h i

r vi r

r

bi

In so me cases two c o ss ea e s are p o ded fo r eac w nde , o ne e ng fram ed in e t wee n t h e o ng tud na eare s in th e ce nt e as wel as t at at t h e w de e nd, as in F ig 2 61 If e t c o ug t e ads are used, t h e s t i ngs m ay b e e a e s and o m t t e d a to e t e , t h e s t e s e n we d e d nt o t h e wa and n ec t w t g o j p g g g p o ut fu th e s uppo t t t e eac th e o ut e st ng

b

i

.

.

v ry h i k r i l hr bi r r r ill h y r h Fig

b rr i r ri

is a po r t i o n o f a s tair diflerent de s cri pt io ns o f

r

r h r ll r

h

l

ih

i

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imi lar t o t hat in Fig 2 62 b ut wi th j o i nts be t wee n t h e t reads and ri sers e nl arge d in o rder t o s h o w t h e l er her n a s t a d o t p de t ail s wh ich c o ul d no t be made clear upo n a very s mall s cale .

2 64

'

,

,

.

s

.

,

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A dvanced

So l id

Building Cons truct ion

like t h o se o f s to ne are s o m e tim e s fo rme d in wo o d fo r ge o me t ri cal s taircas e s and m ake stro ng b ut expen s i v e wo rk s te ps ,

,

,

.

hi h

l b

racke ts , B ( Fig A B xac x e rs n Su m is o ne w c h as o rnam enta xe d o n t h e e nd o f e ac s t e p ab o e t h e o ut e s t ng and m t ed t o t h e o u t e e nd o f t h e se T e are put o n me e fo r t h e s a e o f appea ance , and p a no pa t in s uppo t ng t h e s t e ps A Cu rt ail Step is o ne o f wh ic th e e nd is p o e ct ed o r cu ved ( as s o wn F ig 2 40 ) t o ece e t h e ne we l rt t h e sc o l t e r a us t e s t at s up m inat ing t h e b an a in It is no t unusua , es pec a as t t wo s t o ne s t a s , t o m a e t h e s t e ps o f c u t a fo m , as sh o wn in F ig 2 4 3 ; in s o m e cas es t ee o r mo e s t e ps are c u t a e d \V e n t h e e nd o f t h e s te p is n d r o u ended i e d a a t i s c a u c c '

r

fi

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l h i br

Carriages is a genera name ap as t m e s , s uc o ug h l d o t e e t p ngs , e t c , u se d fo r s uppo t ng a st

i r h = f t ri ri al in h = tair av i d fr am ing in b eare rs f r e v ry wi ndi ng s te p t wo or th r e e T h fl e t e a e t a a t t a rri i r r r ll l r h e c f t d a c m m es e t e a e o a a p g f r suppo r t f t h e W i nde r s c arri ag es a e att a h d r ug h brack e t th s wh erev e r t h e l at te r h appe n t o c ro ss th e m F IG

c

e, x

2 65

.

.

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.

s

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.

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.

H A N D RAI LIN G

.

-T h e

heigh t o f th e handrail sh o ul d no t b e b ut varie d s ligh t ly wi thi n t h e li m it s o f a sec ure a grace ful li ne at th e ch anges o f

i fo rm t hro ugh o ut few i nche s s o as t o i ncli nat io n T h e h andrail sh o ul d be h i gher o n t h e landi ng where t h e s i ng it is erect th an o n t h e s te ps where he will be ih er n u s o p c lining e ither fo rward o r b ack war d acc o rdi n as he is as c e nd g ing o r de scending t h e s tairs un

,

,

.

,

,

,

,

.

i h r ri h l i hih

r

i ngs) to th e uppe r sur face o f th e h i t he re sho uld b e added at t h e

h e g t f o m t h e t e ads ( at th e nos to t h and a l s o u d be 2 fe e t 7 ; nc es land ngs t h e e g t o f a f a se

[Th e

Fo r wi ndi ng

hl

i h ri r

s

.

irs regard sh o ul d be h ad in adj us ting t h e h eigh t o f t h e rail t o t h e po si t io n o f t h e perso n us i ng it — wh o m ay be t hro wn fart her fro m it no t o nly by t h e narr o wne ss o f t h e tre ads, b ut by t h e o bli q ue po si tio n o f th e ri s ers st a

,

,

,

.

A dvanced

1 70

T h ey T hey

Building Cons truct ion

h o uld no t b e m o re t han abo ut 5 i nche s apart are so m e t i m e s v ert ical wo o de n b ars sq uar e t urne d o r c arve d acc o rdi ng t o t h e clas s o f wo rk An iro n b alust er o f t h e sam e pattern as t h e wo o de n o ne s sh o uld be intro duced at i nt erval s ( ge nerally ab o ut I in ev e r y 10 t o re n he h w h le s n t t t e o g ) Iro n balust ers are freq ue ntly used t hro ugh o ut Wo o de n b alust ers sh o ul d be do v e taile d into t h e treads o f t h e st e ps and s ec ure d t o t h e handrail as ab o ve de scribe d T h e balust ers are so m e t i m e s fi xed t o th e o ut er st ri ng bei n g bent o r k need so as t o clear t h e e nds o f th e st e ps in o rder t o 1 d h s t a w o t r s i e ch i h ible i v a s m t a s o s s t e u p g G en er ally t here are two bal ust ers fi xed o n t h e e nd o f e ac h — o ne fl us h o r as n early as po ssible fl ush wi t h th e face o f s tep t h e ri s er t h e o t her m i dway be t wee n t h e ri se rs O n e ach o f t h e narro w e nds o f wi nder s o ne b al ust er o nly is re quired s

.

,

,

,

,

.

.

.

,

.

,

,

.

,

,

,

.

.

C HAPTER IX

.

RI VE TIN G

’ .

ll fast eni ngs m ade o f t h e b est wro ugh t iro n o r m il d s t eel ei t her by h and o r by m ac h i nery and be fo re t h ey are fi xe d c o ns i s t e ach ( see Fig 2 68) o f a sm all spi ndle o r a m a n w a n s a u h k r e by he hich be h e u m t d a d a s i n s o d n s a y p p Fig 2 7 0 o r fo rm e d like a c up o r b utt o n as in Fig 2 69 A b o ut half o f t h e sh ank o f t h e rive t fart he st fro m t h e h ead is sligh t ly t apere d n m ade red h o t and put t hro ug h When t h e ri vet h as bee Th i s is th e F rench sys t em and i nvo lv e t h e use o f iro n b al usters o r iro n bal us ters and ir n brack t o f ir n brack t s al ne N i t h e r rive t i ng ro ll d be am n r pl at e g irde r a e m ent i o ned in t h e Syll ab s f t h i C o rs e b ut t h y are i ncluded in t h is v l um e be cause it is des irabl e t o unde rstand t h em in co nnec tio n with fl oo rs and i ro n ro o fs R rvnrs

are sma

,

.

,

.

,

.

.

.

,

I

s

,

e s,

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3

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or

s

u

s,

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,

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.

Rivet ing

17 1

h o le it is t o o ccupy th e t ai l end o f t h e sh ank is fo rme d ei ther by h and o r by m achinery i nt o a but to n o r po i nt o f th e s h ape req uire d which di ffer s in t h e v ari o us kinds O f ri ve ts as des cribed b elo w R i ve t s are chiefly u se d t o c o nnect pl at e s o f iro n They are pre ferable t o s mall b o l t s bec au se bei ng h ammere d clo se t o th e face o f th e pl at e t hey h o ld m o re t igh t ly and th e s hanks o f rive t s are no t s o likely t o bec o m e o xi di ze d as t h o s e O f b o lts ; m o re o ver as ri ve t s are nearly al ways fi xe d whe n h o t t hey c o n t rac t in co o li ng and draw t h e plat e s t o ge ther wi th f re rce a t o g T hey are m uch use d in c o nne c t io n wit h b uil ding fo r uni t f ing th e part s O pl at e iro n and brace d g ir ders al so fo r wr o ugh t iro n t ank s and b o ilers th e

,

,

,

,

.

,

.

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

.

,

.

Cau lking is ap oces s ado pt ed w en it is fo und t at t h e h ead o r po nt e t is no t q u t e c os e t o t h e p at es, o r t at so m e o pe n ng e x s t s O f th e es e tween t h e p at es t e m se T s p o cess co ns s t s in no c ng do wn t h e edge s o f t h e p at es w t a ng t h e e dg e s t o ge t e and t o c o s e t h e ng t o o , s o as t o unt s t ee c au ‘ e cas e o f h e ad o r po nt are o pen n I n t h e s t e e dges O f t h e a en t e t , g nde nt and s g t do wn unti t e e t r h u f c o f s e a t e e s a h n e n t e t a t e a d , p p c o se t h e O pe n ng t us co mp et e

riv

b

hi r

bl

r

l

i

.

h

l

lki

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i

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h

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riv

.

h

h

l

ki bri

h

li h ly i

i

hr

r

l

i

i

l

l

i

ih

b

.

D ifl e re n t F o rm s o f Riv e t s —T here are v ari o us nam e s n t v e o v t a n t h a i e cc o r i o s h e t w hich t i h r i s d t e o e o n t i s g , g p p fo rm e d '

.

.

Snap rivets

h e o f which t h e iro n is h o t are fi ni she d wi th a t o o l co nt ai ning a ne arly he m i spherical h o llo w which s hape s it as sh o wn in are t o s

i

n t s o p

fo rm e d while t h e

,

Fig

.

2

69

.

T h at fi gure re pre s e nts a snap rivet in a punche d ho le Thi s fo rm .

us

e d in t h e bes t girder B utton

lie d t o

ended

p

o r cu

wo rk

F m 2 69.

Of

ri vet

is

v

ery f reque nt ly

.

— T he se r ivets

are

e

nam s

s o me t

ime s

ri vet s H am mered rivets h av e po i nt s fi ni she d by h amm eri ng o nly t o a c o nical fo rm as in Fig 2 70 which sh o ws such a riv e t in a drille d ho le app

s nap

.

,

.

.

,

,

A dvanced

I 72

Building Co ns t ruct io n .

T hey are m o re

liable t o leak t h an t h o s e wi t h b utto n po in ts b ut are us e d fo r ri v e ts o f l arge s i ze which if fi ni she d wi t h sna p n w u o s o t d u e i l r q ire v ery larg e ham m ers in o rder t hat t h e p n o t s m i ight b e beate n do wn quickly p en o ugh R iv e t s wi t h c o nical po i nt s are so m e t i m es calle d stafi rivets T h e ri ve t in Fig 2 70 h as a pan h ead F 7 a m o dificat i o n o f it in which t h e s i de s o f t h e he ad are v er t ic al is c alle d a en eese lz ead and sh o wn in ,

,

,

,

.

'

.

.

IG

.

2

0

,

.

,

i Fg

2

.

1 . 7

Co unters unk rivets

d o wn while h o t .

2 72

flush

h o se in which th e po int is hamm ere d wi t h th e surface o f t h e plat e as in F ig are t

,

.

.

T hi s is

n

FIG

ece ssary wherever

a smo o th su face

r

FIG

.

.

is

r equire d

,

2 72 .

free fro m t h e projec t i o n that wo ul d be c ause d by o r dinary rive t he ads T h e c o unt ersinking is drille d, and m ay e xt end ri gh t t hro ug h .

t h e pl at e It is freque nt ly t h e prac tice , h o wever, t o h ave a sh o ul der at t h e upper e dg e o f th e l o wer pl at e, as s h o wn at a a, so th at t h e .

c o unters i nk do e s no t e xt end right t hro ugh t h e pl at es T h e sides o f th e co unt ers unk po rt i o n m ay be direc t e d upo n t h e centre o f t h e ri ve t h o le at th e e dge o f t h e plat e as in Fig 2 7 2 o r in m any cas e s t hey are no t incli ne d so much as s h o wn .

,

.

,

.

STEEL RIV ETS require

r

ivi

ve ry

r l t reat ment

ca e fu

,

or

t

hyr l h

h ir h e

e ads

ill b e rath

w

T e eq u i e t o b e er fly o ff u po n e ce ng a s udde n jar r a ge , in p o po t o n t o t h e t c ne ss o f t h e p at e , t an t o n ri e ts , and red eat , and t en po mt s kno cked do wn as a s e d t o a du s o u d be apt t o

l r r r ri h l ri o ss ibl e i kly a s u c q p

.

hi k ll h

.

h

r

v

i

l

F gs

Building Cons truct ion

A dvanced

I 74 e

s o n o t i o r r p p

f

or

h eads

f

dife rent

f

o

orms

ollo

f

are u sed as

ws ( see

2 69 , 2 72 )

.

H

i

C o n cal h eads

h

Pan

'

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b ase o f h e ad

e ig h t .

.

d 75

2

.

eads

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( 1.

rv h

h

j in d o

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,

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fo r

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eac

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r pro vide a spec i al

s om e e ngi nee s O

o

.

cent re

'

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hv

io

’

.

°

— Th e P it ch o f R iv e t s fro m

fo rm e d

by rive ter

.

r

.

'

°

l

d 5

.

.

br

I

'

'

\Vh ere a num e o f p ates a e t o b e added t o a o Th e a o e are gene al drm ens ro ns , b ut u r e e t e e a d e t i e t h o f draw ng q

i

no t

.

'

r

bv

.

45 d t o p O f e ad 1 d d 45 5 d o d d I t d t o 4 5 5

C e es e h ead C o unt e s unk

.

d to

d

6 d

1 I

h

of

.

“

i t / t c p

of

ri vet s

is t h eir dist anc e

cent re Th e distance v arie s acco rding t o t h e nat ure o f t h e st re s s upo n t h e j o i nt and wi t h th e number o f ri ve t s nece ssary t o b e i nserted in a given Space Th e pi tc h u s e d fo r girder wo rk varie s fr o m 3 t o 5 i nche s b ut it sh o ul d n o t e x cee d 1 0 t o 1 2 t i m e s t h e thickne s s o f a s i ngle pl at e as o t herwi s e damp m ay ge t in be t wee n t h e plat e s l an d c au s e rus t which in t i m e swell s and b urst s t he m asunder T/ze distance bet ween tlze edges of rivet lt alos t o pre ve nt th e danger o f bre aking t wo int o o ne sh o ul d no t be le ss t h an e qual Thi s it will be see n leads t o t h e t o t h e di am e t er o f t h e ri ve t s rule t hat t h e m ini mum pitch o f rive ts sh o uld no t be le ss t h an t wice t heir di am e t er to

.

.

,

,

,

.

,

,

.

,

,

.

Th e dist ance betzveen t/ze edge of a rivet Izole and Me edge of z it is formed, t o prevent it t earing t hro ugh , tire plate in wlzic/ Th us t h e s h o ul d no t be le s s t h at t h e di am e t er o f t h e ri ve t .

di am et er fro m t h e e dge o f t h e rive t will be S o m e ti me s fo r t h ick pl at e s t l t e r i e o a a d d o s d p t h e di stance

cent re o f

the

.

.

Stoney

.

Riveted j o ints RIV ET ED

LAP

fo rm e d

I O J NT S .

by ri ve t i ng — 2 74 2 7 7

t o ge t her plat e s th at

in Figs her T h e o verlap sh o ul d no t be le ss t h an 3 1 diam e t er o f t h e rive t s in si ngle riv e t ing ( Fig diam e ters in do uble ri vet ing ( Fig T here are fo rmul ae fo r fi nding t h e le ngt h ov

erl

J

O INT S are

I7 5

ap o ne ano t

,

as

.

.

to

t

i me s

to 6

or

.

th e

.

1

G

G

th e

ov

F I S 2 76, 2 7 7 L ap j o int do u ble r ivet ed

FI S 2 7 4, 2 7 5 L ap J oint s ing le ri veted .

of

.

.

erl aps

,

.

.

.

h j o int s m ay b e o f e qual s trength t hro ugh o ut ; b ut t h e ab o ve rul es will be a s uffi cie nt gui de in ordi nary case s FISH JO INTS are t h o s e in which t h e ends o f t h e pl at e s m ee t “ o ne ano t her t h e j o i nt bei ng fish ed ei ther wi t h a s ingle

s o t at t h e

.

”

,

F IG

.

FIG

.

2 79.

—Sec t ion of F isk/oust

2 80

—Sec tio n of F is h j oin t

.

Cover P lat es

“

co ver plat e

Fig

.

2

80

” ,

as

in Fig

.

2

79,

or

wi th

o ne o n

,

one

,

t wo

as

in

.

e ach s ide

,

.

When

i le co ver plat e is use d it Sh o ul d b e o f so mewhat t a re er t hickness th an t h at o f ei t her o f t h e main plat e s t o be g uni t e d in o rder t o allo w fo r t h e e xt ra s t re s s c aused by th e 1 l o v c er p ate b eing o ut o f th e direct line o f st ress See Part IV N B C a s ng

,

.

.

.

.

.

A dvanced

I 76

Building Cons t ruct ion

Wh en t wo c o ver

le ss thickness be unit e d

no t

to

l a t s a r e u s e e e ch d a p t h an h al f t h e t hickne s s

he m sh o ul d be o f o f ei t her o f t h e plat e s of t

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BU TT

i t n r e fi he j i h e i n s d n t s a t a o o t v g ends o f t h e plat e s butt e ve nly agai n s t

O IN TS is t h e name

J

c o mpr s s o n, so t

e i hat th e o ne ano t her T hi s s el do m o ccurs in prac t ice fo r th e v ery pro ce ss O f ri ve t i ng draws t h e pl at e s s ligh t ly apart and t h e e dg e s are a a u d n h e n er lly c lke c ce l t e a o o t a g g p So met i mes t h e gap is fille d wi t h cast zinc run i nt o t h e i nterval If h o we ver t h e pl at e s are c are fully plane d s quare at t h e e dge s and bro ught very care ful ly i nto cl o se co nt act t hro ugh o u t “ t heir wi dt h th e j o i nt is cal le d a ju mpjoint SING LE R IVETIN G c o nsi st s o f a si ngle ro w o f ri ve t s uni t i ng l e s in any fo rm O f j o i nt as in Fi gs 2 7 4 2 7 5 2 7 8 2 7 9 2 8 0 a t p DO U B LE R IVET IN G is t h at in which t h e pl at e s are unit e d by a do uble ro w o f rivet s as in Figs 2 7 6 2 7 7 2 8 1 .

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rmed by

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rivet ing re spect i vely

.

C H AIN R IVET IN G is fo rm e d by li ne s o f ri vet s in th e dire c t i o n o f t h e st re ss, parallel t o o ne ano th er o n each s i de o f t h e j o i nt, as in Fig 2 8 2 ZIG ZAG R IVET IN G c o ns i s t s o f li ne s o f ri ve t s s o pl ace d t h at t h e rive ts in e ach line divide t h e space s be t wee n t h e rive t s in .

t h e adj ace nt

li ne s

.

n i F s 8 i 2 2 1 83 , , g — — i n o t L p jo s Fig 2 84 sho ws t h e J o in t s i n T e n s io n arrangem e nt o f riv e t s ge ne ral ly ado pt e d fo r lap j o i nts wh i c h are

as

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ergo

t o und

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a t ns

st

re ss

.

.

.

I 7S

A dvanced

Building Cons truction

rive ted j o i nt s o f t e nsi o n flange s O f girders are very co mmo nly arranged in pl an as Sh o wn in Fig 2 85 — Ir was at o ne t i m e t h o ugh t J o in t s in C o m pre s s i o n t h at fo r a b utt j o int under c o m pres s i o n very fe w ri v e t s were nece ssary ; t h at t h e wh o le s t rain was c o m munic at e d by t h e e nd o f o ne plat e t o t h e o t her upo n which it pre s se d and t h at t h e ri ve t s wo ul d be re qu ire d o nly t o kee p t h e pl at es in t h e i r l ce s a p Experie nce h as sh o wn h o we ver t h at in prac t ice we c ann o t de pe nd upo n t h e pl at e s bei ng so cl o sely but t e d agai nst o ne ano t her as t o t ransm i t t h e t hr us t direc t ( see p Ve ry Slig h t i nac curacy o f wo rkm ans h i p m ay c ause t h e s e parat i o n o f t h e b ut t i ng plate s and t h en t h e wh o l e t h r ust is t rans m i t t ed t h r o ugh t h e rive t and t h ro ugh th co ve r plat es F th e b es t bridges it i no w ass um e d t h at all th e j i nt s h al l b o f s uffi c ie nt s t rengt h t o t ak e t h e wh o l e s t rai n if necessary t h ro ugh t h e riv e t s The

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hi h

way in w is , t at th e

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j i nt

ly di ffe r fro m d a os S a c e c s h t o s b e c e e m o a e m i j i h riv r l ly r e t s n t s p o y t ens o n c s t n f f t n h e n t a t r e t s o n t n a n c h l i y h i i i u t d n c e u a n t t u g g h e t y e a t p q p n m t f r o o a t e n s t t a es o r i j i h i d a t n s o t n o j o f a c o m p ess Th e

o nly

—G r o uped J oint

c o mp e s s o n

m ay

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— h e j o i nt s t h at T oints j

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h i n t l a t s u e o cc r e f u d p G ro pe a t s v o m w d t f o e e er e e lly r e i h c er l e a r n p ri v t d gird s are g s h o m i n t e o a s O f f a t s s o he here e er l l yer l e b a a v s a r e W nt p n o t d t a o t a d v a n w t a l e ir er j i m i h e be c llec e i n s t h e o t g a arg g d y f t n a a o e s e o v d o h e er l be c ere by ir l a m a v s t a s t p p s o u r o , y p g as Sh o wn in Fig 2 86 U nwi n Iron B ridg es and Roof s o

.

.

,

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,

.

W

ct roug /

I ron G irders

I 79

h o ws th e j o i nts in th e three plat es o f t h e b o o m T h e j o i nt s o f a he avy girder c o llec te d under c o v er pl at e s may be chai n o r zigzag ri ve t e d in pl an ; o r in so me cas es th e co ver plat es are cut o ff o bliquely so as t o h ave t riangular ends and th e rivet s are arrange d so me wh at as in Figs 2 84 2 85 Fig

.

2 86 s

.

,

,

.

.

,

C HAPTER X

.

WK0 U0 11 T J

R ON

G IRDE RS .

iron G irders f orm part of th e E lementary Course, and Cas tR olled Wro ugh twere dealt will: in E B C D p r 9 6 iron i u up Plat e and B ox G irder: are not ment ioned in b l t B eams and .

.

.

.

.

.

Course, but will be bn qfly described lure, as knowledge rg arding t/cem will be usef ul ’

er eit/ z

some

little

.

Pro po rt io n t h at, becau se th e

— w n I t a s f F l e s o n a t i e d o u t i n ERC D g o p .

.

re s istance O f cast iro n t o c o mpre ssio n is ab o ut i i n s a a s s t o t n h m a t t o t e i e re e s i fl e c ir i x t s a n s o f a a s t n o g g n n u w i s i t n s o o u ir e r hich e i re q ire s a b t S i x i e t m h s d t a r e r a o e g s ec t io n t h at is requ ire d in t h e fl ange subject e d t o c o m pre s s i o n In prac t ice t h e t ensio n fl ange is o ft e n m uch l arger so t h at t h e rat io is o ft en o nly t hree o r fo ur t o o ne H ence a cast-iro n m a d n n s w t t h e t s a n ir er i e i h e i fl e h i re hree o a v n d a n a a t t o g g g Six t i m e s as gre at as t hat o f t h e c o m pre ssi o n flange ( se e Fi gs 1 W n 0 d t h t o n i r h ir ir e h e er a w o u w d h r s v t e o 3 3 g p g Th e wo rking re s i s tance o f wro ugh tiro n t o c ase is differe nt c o m pre ss i o n is g o f its re si stance t o t e ns i o n ( see Table p Th e s ect io nal area o f th e t ensio n fl ange m ay t herefo re b e In many case s made g o f t h at o f th e c o mpres s i o n flange fo r t h e s ake o f si mplicity it is m ade pract ically e qual t o it — Th e m anufacture o f R o ll e d W ro ugh t iro n B e am s iro n be ams o r j o i st s h as been so m uch i mpro ved wro ugh to f lat e ye ars t h at t hey c an no w be r o lle d t o any Si ze t h at is likely t o be re quired in o r dinary buil dings ,

.

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O IS

A dvanced

Building Cons t ruction

Fig

hey co nsist o f t wo flanges f f and a web w th e fl ange s bei ng b o th o f th e s am e Size Ro lled beam s m ay o r dinarily b e o b t ai ne d o f and vari o us s ec t io ns fro m 3 t o 2 0 inche s in de pth h ave been m anufac t ured up to a dept h o f e ven a d t a r t h t a ee t f o re er e h n 1 2 i n che u t b s a f g ; p 3 b il up girder s uch as o ne o f t h o se de scri be d be lo w t u 87 F l s us ually pre ferable R ll d Th e re aso n fo r t hi s is th at th e number and t hick ne s s t o f th e plat es use d in a buil up girder m ay be varie d at di ffere n t r i n pro po r t i o n t o t h e s t re s se s which c o m e u po n o f it s t a p t ho s e par t s ; whereas in a r o lle d girder th e thick ne ss o f t h e we b and o f t h e flanges is n ece ssarily unvaryi ng t hr o ugh o u t its lengt h and if t herefo re t he s e are t hick e no ugh t o wi th s t and t h e gre at er s t re s se s t hey are t o o thick in t h o s e po rti o ns where t h e smaller st re sses o cc ur — d r r n i s S me ti mes t wo o r t h re e ro ll ed ir n Compou nd Rolled I o C n be am a e riveted t oge th er W th o wi tho ut plates attached t t he m ( Se e Fig 2 88 In

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ec ti o n ( see

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2 88.

Compound Rolled I ron Girders

F IG

.

2 89.

.

— If fo r any part ic ul ar posi ti o n ro lle d beams Pl at e G irde rs canno t be o btai ne d o f t h e necessary fo rm o r dim e ns io ns, s may be b uil t up b y ri ve t in ir er e le ir n s d l a t n o s a n d a g g p g t o ge t her in di fferent way s .

.

Rivet e d,

lly called plat e girders may be co nst ruc t e d o f Si ze s far e xcee di ng t h o se o f th e large st ro lle d beam s T h e best dept h fo r t he s e gir ders is ab out TL n h s a t e p , T h e s i m ple st fo rm o f plat e girder c o nsi st s o f angle iro ns l v t t o a w a v t c a ri e e d er i l t e i a s h 2 F 0 t s n i h o w n e f (f ) p ( ) g 9 o r, as

t hey are m o re

usua

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A dvanced

1 82

Building Const ruct ion

Thi s m ay

be affo rded by st i ffe ners (s) O f T iro n rivet e d v er t ic ally t o b o t h s ide s o f th e we b al o ng t h e girder at di s t ance s v aryi ng acc o rding t o t h e l o ad dept h o f girder and t hick ne s s ,

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we b

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Ext ra s t i ffe ners

lo ads

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are a so

a d l ce p

er

u nd

i

n o t s p

where

heavy

expect ed Th e s t i ffe ner s m ay ei t her b e be nt o utwards at an angle as s h o wn o r t hey m ay be cranke d o r j o ggle d t h at is be nt cl o s e r o und o ver th e angle iro ns o f t h e girder ( which latt er is a m o re e xpe nsiv e arrange m ent) o r t hey m ay be kept o ut by m eans o f dis tance piece s pl ace d under t hem so as t o cle ar t h e angl e iro ns T hi s l ast arrangement is Si mple b ut adds unnecessary weigh t t o t h e girder In girders t o c arry gre at l o ads s ev eral pl at es are re quired in n n fl each flange a d whe th e ange pl at es are wi de gusset s o r v er t ical pl at e s are adde d b ut suc h he avy gir ders are no t likely t o be require d in any o rdi nary bu il di ng are

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,

,

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,

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.

,

,

.

in e x s t e nce p at e i d d e l l es o f a m o s t a o s i b s e g g p d me ns o ns, and so m e O f t h e a ges t are o ec t s o f un e s a adm at o n ; a d s a t e d i t m o a t t a e t b e t t h e a t i i n s e d f a d o d a n e m e e a , y y p g p o f 50 fee t , o ses t o se ad ant ag e s w c , up t o t at S an, its S mp c t p ” affo rds as agains t t h e g t ne ss o f o t e s ys te ms “

i

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li i y

l e i e by e ir l a t s u n t a n o n s d p g and riv e t s i nt o a h o ll o w rec tangul ar b o x s ec t i o n as s h o wn in Fig 2 94 Bo x girders Sh o ul d be l arge e no ugh t o adm i t a m an o r b o y so t h at t hey c an be pai nt e d peri o dically o n t h e i ns i de t o pre ve nt c o rro s i o n Whe n t h e girder is nece ssarily t o o s mall t o all o w O f t hi s t h e plat e s are m ade O f e xt ra t hickne ss t o allo w fo r c o rro si o n ; and so m et i m e s t h e int eri o r o f t h e g irder is fille d wi t h c o ncret e t o n f t h h o m f e r ec ir r c i t t t e o t h a t o o e n o p air and t o prev e nt o x idat i o n up O f

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i

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F IG 2 % Su t ton ef B ox Girder

ir i

l

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Works in Iron

,

by Ewing M ath eson

.

1 83

F ireproof F loors B ox G t rders — Th e

co mparat ive ir W advan tage s O f pl at e and b o x gir der s are s um m e d up by S Fairb airn as fo ll o ws : O n c o mpari ng t h e s tre ngt h s o f t he s e s e parat e beam s wei gh t fo r wei gh t it will be fo und t h at t h e b o x be am is as 1 9 3 o r ne arly as 1 0 0 90 Th is di ffe rence in th e res i t i ng po w r o f th e t w b eam s do es no t ari se fr m any di ff rence o r e ce ss in t h e q uant i ty o f m at e ri al in e i th r s t ruc t ure Th e b beam it will b ut fro m t h e b e t t e r s ec t i o nal fo r m o f t h b o b e am bse rved co ntains a l arger e t e rio r sect i nal area and i c n quent ly b t i ffe r and be t t e r cal c l at e d t o r e s i st l at ral s t r ai n in wh i ch dire c t i n t h f o t e r r es i s t i ng po we r s o f t e nsi o n and l r r lly yi l b r i t h t e f m n a d s a e e e g p i n can b e br ught f lly i nto act i n c o m pr Taki ng t h is beam h o we ve r in a p s i t i n s i m il ar t o t h at in wh i ch it is f fire pro f b uil di ng s o r t h e r adway o f a use d f r suppo rt i ng t h e ar ch e s bridge whe n it ve rti cal p sit io n is mai ntained its s t rength is ve ry nearl y t h at o f t h e b o b e am e q ual t “ B t wh il e t h e pl at e b e am in t h e po s i t io n t h us desc ribe d is ne arl y beam it is f m re s i m pl e e q ual if no t in s o m e re pe c t s s upe ri o r t o t h e b o t i n l es e p n ive and m re durabl e fr o m t h e c ircu ms t ance t h at o n tr i a n f h a m d t h e ve r t i cal pl at i t h i c k e r t h an t h idel a t e o t e b o b e p co ns q ue nt ly be t t e r cal cul ate d t o r es i s t t h o s e at m sph e ri c ch ange s wh i c h in t h i s li m at e h ave s o g r e at an i n flue nce u po n t h e du rabili t y o f t h e m e tal “ B es i des it admi t s o f e as y access to all its part s fo r purpo ses o f cl eani ng Comparison of

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C HAPT ER XI

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FI required

RE PR O OF

F L O ORS .

c h o e s r t h n n d i b t e a ll u a s a b s e by t he S , y pg ( ) wh ich th ey are t reated upon

at

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roq

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oors

I 86

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— G e n eral Re m arks Fire pro o f fl o o rs

i e re er c a t s v g in pre ve nt i ng fl am e s fro m Spre adi ng thro ugh o ut a b uil di ng A gre at m any di fferent syst e m s O f fire pro o f c o nst ruc t i o n h av e bee n pro po s e d duri ng t h e las t fe w y e ars ; and be fo re de scribi ng t h e m o st i m po rt ant o f t he se it will be de s irable t o Sir \V Fairb airn ou th e Application of Cast and Wroug h t Iron t o are O f ‘

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B u ilding Pu rposes

.

A dvanced Building Cons truct ion

1 84

stat e wh at ch arac t e ri sti c s sh o ul d b e l ooked p roof floor

fo r in

a

good

fire

.

C h arac t eris t ic s

of

G o o d F i re pro o f F lo o rs

.

e st i mati ng th e e ffici ency o f any syst em o f fi re proo f floo ring th e u nderme nti o ned p o i nts sh ou l d b e att ended t o In

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P ROT ECT I O N o r I RON WORK Th e struct ure o f a fi reproof floo r i s general ly dep end en t u po n th e i ronwork ; if th at i s destroyed o r give s way th e floo r I ro n gir de r s and col um ns m ay b e p ro tect ed b y mu st fol lo w t e rracotta bl ocks s ee Figs 2 9 7 3 1 0 3 1 1 e tc o r by co ncr e te s e e Fi gs 3 0 5 e t c A,

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RESISTA NC E

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no n co nd u c t or

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stru c tu re

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cracks and give s way suddenl y e spec ially wh e n it i s h eated and th en dr enc h ed as it i s like ly to b e d uri ng a fi re n f a In th e C h i cag o fi re th e e ds o c st iro n c olu m ns we re ac t uall y m e lt ed o fl Timber in larg e sc antli ngs will re s i st th e ac tio n o f fi re fo r a long t i m e if th e flame s c anno t g e t ro u nd i ts s i de s o r e nd s A ft er i t b eco me s c h arr ed t o a certain de pth t h e c harco al fo rm ed o n i ts s u rface b e i ng a no n-co ndu c t o r p r ot ects it IVoodcnfl oor: wil l r e s i st a co ns iderable ac t i o n o f fi re if wel l e mb edded in mortar wh ich h o we ver lead s t o th e ir p rem ature decay IVood may b e re nde red p artially fi reproo f by b ei ng co at ed wi th cyani t e as b e sto s p aints or o th e r s u b stance s s i m il ar re is t i ng s ub s tanc e b ut t h is d e pe nds t Concrete is gene rally a go o d fi re f wh ich it is co m po se d so m e e t e nt up o n t h e m ate i al Gyp m ( s ul ph at e o f li m ) is w ak t h an P o t l and ce m e nt b ut re s i ts fi e be t t er as it d o e s no t l o se it c o h s i e p o wer eve n wh en rai d t o a wh i t e h eat and t h e n d ench d wi th wate Lawfo rd Trans actions S o ci e t y o f E ngi neers 1 888 Cas t iron

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A dvanced Bu ilding Cons truct ion

1 86

D I FF E REN T F ORM S O F F I R E PROO F F LOO RI NG A gr eat m any d iffe ren t for ms o f fi re pr oo f floo ri ng hav e b ee n p ro po sed and made u s e o f duri ng th e last fe w years T h ey m ay b e gene rally c las s ed u nde r fo u r h ead s A A rc h e s of bri ck o r concre t e s uppo r ted u p o n walls o r girde rs B H o llo w b ri cks o r t ub e s s u pp o r ted b e twee n g ir de rs and fill ed in wi th concre t e C C o nc re t e fi ll ed in b e t ween and ar o und girders D Soli d t i mb er o f consi derabl e t hi ck ne s s E I ro n p l at e s re st i ng o n girde r s .

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.

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T/ze

by tlze Sy llaous to be dealt wit/t are ’ and B arrett s u nder C O ne o t wo

o nly sy s t ems required

th ose under A , and F ox

m o re

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y is no t a co nv eni ent ne fo r h i pp e d ro o fs and fo r t h s oo f als wh a l o ngit udi nal b ac ing b e t ween t h e p i nci p al s is e qu r d in a e t ical l ane p De tai l d llustratio ns o f t hi s fo rm o f truss are given at p 1 0 — f m 2 sh o ri o u s o r s 2 w F i gs 8 v a u o d o o f s e n e R R 3 3 3 Q — o f s o c all ed q u ee n rod roo fs ad apt ed fo r sp ans fro m 3 5 t o 60 fee t An e xam pl e o f s u c h a r oo f i s al s o gi ve n in F i g 3 2 9 In thi s e xam pl e th e raft e rs an d stru ts are o f T iro n t h e t ens i o n and s u sp e nd ing r od s o f r o u n d iro n T h e co veri ng i s O f D uch e ss slate s l ai d o n angl e iro n laths T h e rid ge l ante rn i s o f s imilar const ru ct ion t o th at last de s c ribed cov ered wi th slat e s o n angl e ir on laths and s u pp o rt ed b y cast iron stand ard s — M OD I F I C AT I ON O F Q U EEN RO D Ro o m F i g 3 3 1 sh ows a m od i fi cati on o f th e qu eenrod roof often u s ed in p rac ti ce In th i s form o f r oo f th e stru ts are at right angl e s t o th e rafte r and are th ere fore o f m inim um length I n th e exam ple giv en th e s truts are o f do ubl e b ar iro n o f th e const ru c tion de s crib ed at p 2 0 1 th e rafter s o f T iron th e t ensi on and t i e rod s o f rou nd iron th e p u rli ns o f wood connect ed to th e raft e r s by angl e iron Th e ti e r od i s att ach ed t o ch airs formed upon th e h ead s o f th e co l um ns s u pp o rt ing th e r oo f and i s p rov i ded wi th a uni on joint in th e cent re by wh i ch i t m ay b e tightened reas o n th e s s tem

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th e int e rvals affo rd a k ey fo r th e plaster Eve ry lath is s ecured by nail s o ne b e ing d ri ven th rough th e lath T h e m o i st p laste r pas s e s wh er ev er i t c ro ss e s a jo i st o r batt e n be tween th e laths form ing p ro tu b e rance s at th e back— th e s e h arden and form what i s k no wn as th e h ey wh i ch pr e vents th e p laste r from falli ng away fro m th e l aths and k eeps it in p o si tion Care sh o uld b e tak e n th at th e e nd s o f th e laths do no t o v e rl ap o ne ano th e r and th at th ey are attach ed t o as s m al l a s u rface o f ti m b e r as p o ss ibl e s o th at th e k e y m ay n o t b e i nterrupt ed If th e jo i sts are o f wood a narrow fi ll e t m ay b e nail ed al o ng th e u nde r s i de o f e ac h t o r ece i ve th e l aths s o as t o interfere with th e k ey o f th e plast e r as li ttl e as p o ss ibl e ” Th e laths sh ould b e lai d in bay s s o as t o bre ak jo int in p o r t ions 3 fee t wi de ( s ee F ig Th e th i ck e st laths sh o uld b e u s ed fo r ceilings and fo r v e ry i m portant work th ey sh o u l d b e nail ed with zinc nails s o th at th ere m ay b e no d ange r o f th e ir ox id izi ng and th e ru st sh o w ing o n th e s u rface 1 are s o c all ed b ec au s e woode n b att e ns B attened Walls ab o u t 2 t o 2 % i nch e s wi de and fro m 3 t o 1 i nch th i ck are fi x ed v e r ti cal ly at ce ntral int e rval s o f ab o u t 1 2 i nc h e s t o r ece i ve t h e l aths Th e b att ens are nail ed to wood plugs in th e wall except wh e re flue s occ u r in wh i ch c as e th e y sh o u l d b e s ec ured b y iro n h o ld fasts T h e laths are nail ed as ab ov e de s crib ed Th ey sho ul d b e s f h f n o t w a n i c h c l e r th e i s i de ll b o u t a e d i n c h n o a a full y 5 g 3 — thu s afford ing a k ey wh i ch i s s uffi c i ent t o s u pp o rt th e ap art p last e r in i ts ve rt i cal p o s i ti on Lath and hal f laths sh o u l d b e u sed fo r wall s and p ar ti t io ns s u bjec t to ro ugh u sage and s i ngl e laths fo r o rdi nary wall s Wall s lik ely t o b e d am p sh o ul d b e b att ened as th e cl ear air space b e t wee n th e m as onry and th e lath i ng e ns u re s th e plast er ed su rface b e i ng co nstantl y dry 3 b u t b attened wall s h ar b ou r ve rm i n th e woodwo rk i s s ubjec t t o decay and i s i nj u ri o u s in c as e o f fi re Sc St rapp d walls t

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by

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ih

bri

Appendix

228

D raw, t o a scal e o f 5 th e s i de A , addi ng th e de tail s o f a cased , " wi ndo w fram e , and th e s t il e o f a 2 t o p sas faced arc i t r av e , S o w a pane l ed and m o ul de d am b li ni ng, do ubl e l a s t e r and wall fi ni s e d wi t p ' 8 n a m s w n a o i li i r i ir 2 w o a o f t o a c n d a a o n n l e r a t a s c e n D , , g 3 g ro o f t rus s , s ui table t o a 43 ft s pan Th e co mpr ess io n bars t o b e s o rt er

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Index

2 30

hi

y h

i

Bo nd o f c mne s aft s , 84 Bo o m s , 1 8 1 Bo t t ed, 1 42 , 1 46 Bo t t led m o s ed s t e p, 1 42 , 1 46 Bo t t o m a o f s as , 1 1 4 Bo x g de s , 1 82 Bo x e s , co up ng , 20 3 Bo x ngs , 1 2 7 B ace , ang e , 9 7 B ace d g de s , 1 4 B ac e s , 43 B ac ke t , 1 1 4, 1 55 B ac e t ed s t air, 1 68 B ac e ts , o ug , 1 55 B ande ng , 2 1 2 B e ak ng o ad , 4 ; s t e s s , 5 h i m ne , 77 B e as t , 1 42

c as t ngs ,

r l r ir r r r r k r k r h r ri r i l r C

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Bridlm g , 98 B q ue t t e s , 2 4 B t s o ak , 2 9 Bu s , 1 9 B ut t jo nt s , 1 76, 1 77 et s, 1 7 1 But t o n

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ir 1 45 1 52 C l ay h ar d b u nt 1 84 C l e at s 90 C li p 1 0 9 s t r ngs 1 57 C lo lo rs 1 2 8 fru i t e d C l t rBay o ak

C AEN s t o ne , 2 2 C a de wo o d c e m e nt , 2 0 9 C anada re d p ne , 2 8 m ne , 89 C ans , C ant e e , 6 C app ng , 1 1 4 ; t es , 1 0 5 C aps , c m ne , 83 C apsills , 45 Ca o n in pig o n, 3 1 d ffe re nce e ffe c t o n an d s t e e , 3 1 o f, in o f, 3 1 C ar age s , 1 58, 1 68 h a de n ng s t e e , 36 C ase eam s , 1 0 ; C as t o n, 3 1 , 32 , 1 84

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90 ; g t, 1 38 C e ng s , at ng , 2 1 0 ang es , 2 1 7 ; A t e m e nt , 2 4 n ’ 2 0 9 ; C a de wo o d, 2 0 9 so n s , ’ H a w c , 2 0 9 ; Kee ne s , 2 0 9 ’ Ma t n s, 2 0 9 M ed na, 2 0 9 ; ’ Mulg rave s , 2 0 9 ot e u ck q se tt ng , 2 4 ; Pa an, 2 0 9 Po t and, 2 4, 2 0 9 ende ng in , 2 1 5 ’ Ro ns o n s , 2 0 9 Ro m an, 2 4, 209 s ag , 1 85 s taff e ads , 2 1 7 W t , 209 e t ng , 1 76 C an C ai a , 1 1 9 o ns , 33 ; t es , 1 0 5 C anne b arring t m e , 30 C e e se e ad, 1 72 ed C o n, 32 C m ne b ar, 84 ; eas t , 7 7 , 88 c ans , 89 caps , 83 : flue s , 88 o ts , 89 ; s afts , 82 ; s afts , 0 nd o f, 84 C m ne s , 7 7 s t o ne, 88 C uffs , 1 9 C c u a d ai ns , 75 ; geo m e t ca s t a , 1 46, 1 4 ; ne we l s t a , 1 4 , 5 5

ili

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c

2 3

,

,

aulking , 1 7 1

reez -bricks 74 ri k ar h e and girde rs 1 86 a h l ar 56 drai n and se wers 7 5 c aff l ds 4 1 B i kl aye r B ri ks 1 9 76 Charact ri t i s o f 2 0 ; C l as ifi at i o n f 1 9 ; vil f fa i ng wi t h up ri r 56 ; h and m a h i ne m ade 1 9 m ad 19 ; m an fac t r 1 9 s iz and w i gh t f 20 ; w d 1 14 2 0 ; v ari t i B ri k wo r k 1 84 B ri kw rk and m a nry 55 Bri dg i ng j i t s o f flo o r 1 55 e

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1 20

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0 l 5 s t ru t 9 C as t l ad 37 r ugh 2 1 0 C as t i ngs o f a t iro n 32 i es , p

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29

C o ars e s t uff, 2 1 0 C o dd ng s , 78 as t on 31 Co d Co a e am o o f, 1 3 t ie , 90 c ks , 1 9 C o mmo n g o unds, 1 1 5 aft e s , 90 ; s t uc co , z1 o C o m po und o e d o n g de s , 1 80 wa s , 55 C o mp ess o n, 2 ; ars , 9 ; o nts in , 1 78 ; m e m ers in, 1 2 C o nce nt at ed o ad, 1 6 C o nc e te , 2 5, 1 84 ; g de s ed in w t , 1 9 1 ; a ng, 2 5 ; pro o n n t o s o f e d s 2 e n t , p g 5

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Index

r

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C o nst uct o n o f h ip ) ed o o fs , 95 C o nt nuo us e am , C o nt ac t d aw ng s o f o n o o fs , 2 0 6 C o nt rafle x ure , po n ts o f, 7

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C o ppe , 37 , C o e , 1 69 C o ng, 89 C o n ce , 90 C o ugate d

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8

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10 1

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104

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ro o f

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111

C o t t e e d o nt s , 2 0 3 C o tte s, 2 0 3 C o t t o n, S cate , 1 85 at ng , 2 1 2 s 1 8 C o unt e t , 3 g C o unt e sun r ve t s , 1 72 C o up e o o f, 1 3 C o up ng o xe s , 2 0 3 oc ng, o zo nt a Co u se , dam pp o o f, 60 ; e t ca dam p f 6 1 oo , p C o e e d d a n, 7 5 C o e ngs , o o f, 1 0 0 C a , 45 e ng nes , 54 C ad ng , 1 1 4 C raigle it h s t o ne , 2 2 C am ps , c as t - o n, 64 C anes , de c , 46 C e o so t ng t m e , 30 C o ss e a e s, 1 55 ; aced g de , 1 4 ; sect o n, ap c a e nce o f, 2 6 C uc e cast s t e e 35 e ts , 1 7 1 u C p e nded C u , 1 36 C u t a s te p, 1 42 , 1 68 C ut s t ngs , 1 55, 1 6 1 C ut t e s , 1 9

kyli h

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DADO , 1 1 4, 1 1 9 D ant zic o ak , 2 9 D ead o ad, 4 D ea s , 2 8 ’ D e nnet t s fi e p o o f fl oo , 1 88 De flo at , 2 1 4 D e c c ane s , 46 D iago na o nd, 69 D o ge g ed s t a , 1 44 , 1 48, 1 6 1 D o gs , 4 D o , 50 , 54 D oo wa s , n ngs t o , 1 2 0 faced 117 Dou ea c t a e, ve t ng , 1 76 ; eade d a , 34 o t e s , 1 0 4 ; s ea s t ee , 35 s ze , 2 1 0 , ski t ng, 1 1 9

l

l

rby rri k r lb l

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lly r y li i bl r hi r v h r il ri i r ll il h r i ri

l

2 31

Do u to nPeto s s te m o f fi ep o o f f o o ng , 1 87 D agg ngt ie , 9 7 D ago n e am , 9 7 D a ns , C cu a , 7 5 ; co e ed, 75 D aw ng p e s, 54 D ps , 1 1 0 D ry ro t , 30 Du mas t o ak , 2 9 D ut c c n e s , 2 0

l

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EA V ES gut t e s , zinc , 1 1 2 Egg -s ape d s e we s , 7 5 E o w n ngs , 1 2 0 Elm , 2 9 Enam e le d c s, 2 0 Eng nes , c ab , 54 ; p e , 51 ing : 51 Eng s o nd, 70 ’ ’ E ans and Swa ns s st e m fl oo f i o o 1 n r , 93 g p Evrls o f fac ng w t s upe o é S Ex c a at o n, 38 Ex t e na wo k , 2 1 6

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F AC IN G pa o Fac t o o f s afe t Fa e am re d

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20

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1 47

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F e l ng t m be , 2 7 F e t , asp a t ed , 1 0 1 F e t , 1 1 4, 1 55 t t ng , 90 F ne s t uff, 2 1 0 F n s e d g o unds , 1 1 5 F ir, re d o r e o w, 2 8 ; s pruce o r w te, 2 9 F e c s, 2 0 c a wa e , 2 0 F eF e p ac e s , 83 ’ F e p o o f o c s , W h ich co rd s , 1 87 flo o ing , d ffe ent fo m s o f, 1 86 fl o o s , 1 83 ; c a act e s t cs o f ’ D n 8 n s 1 8 o o d 1 e e t t 8 , ; , 4 g Firrings , 2 1 0 F s o nt s , 1 7 5 F xed e am s , 7 ’ F x ng g o u nds , 1 1 5 o ne s wo ,

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1 1 3 ; s t o ne s t e ps , I 4 7

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f 1 langes r r i o t n o o p p 79 lap ba k 1 2 8 lash i ng l ead 1 37 ; zi nc 1 1 2 b t t m e d rail 34 j i nt po i nt F l at ing 66 ; t pp d 68 ; j int r f 98 F l e m i h bo nd 7 1 F li r 1 42 F ligh t 1 42 1 44 1 i n f a 2 4 g g F l at i ng 2 1 3 2 1 5 F l o ri ng d i ff r e nt fo rm s f fi f 6 r 1 8 o p F l r arch d I 9 3 bri dg i ng j i t f 1 55 ; t 1 8 5 p r m an n y 1 85 ; p g g d 1 9 3 ; lid t i m b 1 93 ; 1 8 5 ; t ri m m i ng t r e ng t h j ist o f 1 55 ; wo o d n 1 84 fire pr f 1 83 Ch arac te ri t i

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of r 77 7 S h i mney 88 F l h j i nt 66 F ld j i nt 1 0 9 F l d ng 1 2 7 ; s h utt e r s 1 2 7 F rg pig 3 1 F r k c nn t i n 1 0 9 F rm f r f t r u e 1 95 F s t r s lo k w i ng r fi ng t il es 1 0 6 F undry p ig 3 1 yst em f firepr o f F and Barr t t flo ri ng 1 9 1 F ram s li d 1 14 1 r 1 F ram e d angl u n d o 97 ; g 5 F r nch o ak 2 9 Fr g 1 9 F r nt h e ar th 84

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F urrings,

1 55

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G A B ER S s caffo ds , 43 G a an zed o n, 34 G ant e s , 43 G auged s t u ff, 2 1 0 ; wo , 66, 2 1 5 G au t cks , 2 0 G e ne a em a k s o n fi ep o o f fl o o s , 1 83 o n o o f c o e ng s , 1 0 0 G e o m e t ca s t a 1 45, 1 53 , I 6S ac e d 14 G de s , b o x , 1 82 c o m pa i so n o f p at e and b o x, 1 8 3 c o ss o m po und o le d o n , 1 80 e d in w t ace d, 1 4 co n

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rani te 2 1 ray ca t ir o n 32 re nh art 30 rill ag 49 rizzl s 1 9 r v d gro und 1 1 4 r und 1 1 4 r nd 1 1 4 co m m n 1 1 5 fi ni hed 1 1 5 fi i ng 1 1 5 fram d 1 15 r v o d 1 14 g m i tr d 1 14 l a y d 1 14 p w r ug h t 1 1 5 1 G j i n t d 78 p G ro t 2 5 G r ut i ng 66 G ui d pil e 48 G u t t r 9o b ar r 90 ; pl at 90 G t t e r vall ey 1 1 2 ; zi nc 1 1 2 G ypsum 1 84 G G G G G G G G

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H A L FBRIC K e xt e r nal wall s , Eng l is

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1 69

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H e a t h , ack , 84 ; f o nt , 84 H e a t s, 84 H e a t wo o d, 2 7 H e ng - o ne o nd, 70 H ng e s , 1 1 4 H ip aft e s , 9 5 2 0 0 H ppe d o o f, 9 5 ; co ns t uct

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95

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Index

2 34

i i

r y

L n ngs t o do o wa s , 1 2 0 Lint e , s t o ne , 1 1 4 woo d, 1 1 4 L ve o ad, 4 Lo ad, 3 ; e a ng, 4 ;co nc ent ate d, e , 4 ; m x e d, 4 ; 1 6 ; de ad, 4 ; safe , 5 ; wo k ng , 5 f o s m o n 1 8 t a n ss 1 Lo ads , , 5 Lo gs , 2 8 Lo ng s t uts , 9

l l

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M AC H IN E-MADE bri ck Mah o gany 2 9 M all eabl e ca t iro n 32 M al m 1 9 Man fie l d s to ne 2 2 Marbl e 2 2 M ar t i n s c em e nt 2 0 9 M aso n s s caffo l d 43 Maso n s o r V j o i nts 68 Mat e rials 1 8

O ne co at wo O pe n ne we l, ne we

,

u

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,

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in t e ns o n, 1 2 u nde t ans e c ant b ar, 33

r r

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12

v rse s t ress

,

12

Me r M il d s te e l , 35 M ill ed l ead 3 7 M i t re d gro unds , 1 1 4 s tri ngs, 1 55 M i x e d l o ad 4 M o nke y 51 Mo ps tick andrail , 1 69 Mo r tar , 2 5 Mo t t l ed cast iro n 32 s made bri cks , l u r o e n Mo u ded a d p p ,

,

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Mulg rave s ’

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r ll r i ri ri l r rli hi ri b r r vili r i i hi i h k

s,

M edina cem e nt , 2 0 9 M e du llary rays 2 6 M ee t ing rail s, 1 1 4 Me m b e rs in co m pr es s i o n,

s , 1 64

ri ngs 1 57 set t i ng ce m ent O t he r q i ck 24 O u t e r s t ri ng 1 55 1 57 1 6 1 O ut s i de li ni ngs 1 2 1 li ni ng f sash f am 1 1 4 s h ut t e rs 1 2 7 1 35 st

h

,

’

1 42 , 1 65

PANT IN C t m e , 30 Pan ead, 1 72 ; t le s, 1 0 1 , 1 0 4 Pa ape t wa , 90 Pa ge t t ng , 88 Pa an c e m ent , 2 0 9 Pa s , p ast e o f, 2 6, 2 0 9 Pa am e nt nge s , 1 35 Pa t ng ead, 1 1 4 ; Sl p, 1 1 4 Pa t s o f wo o de n s t a s , 1 55 Pas t u e o ak , 2 9 Pa o n o o f, 9 5 P ece , p t c ng, 1 55 ; po c e t , 1 1 4 o o f, P e ndraft ers , 9 5 c ec , 1 47

,

s

2 12

,

l s tair

s, 1 9 , 2 0

s

rk

k

r

95 P e nds, 95 Pig o n, 3 1 ; ca o n in, 3 1 ; as s fi cat io n o f, 3 1 s n 1 n e 0 o n, e e a s t P , c , 5 g 5 ;

i

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o f, 1 42

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; A m e can, 2 9 ; B t s , us t e f u t ed o r b ay, 2 9 ; 29 ; 29 ; Dantzic , 2 9 ; Du mas t , F e nc , 2 9 ; Ita an, 2 9 ; R ga, f u te d o r 1 1 s t a 29 ; s , 4;

O A K,

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1 65 ; sta rs , 1 63

o

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N A T RA L b e d, 2 2 N e we , o pe n, 1 42 , N e we s, 1 42 No t e n p ne , 2 8 N o s ngs , 1 42 ; ne

i

il ir i iro n 50 drive rs s t e am 54 Pil e a f 8 us s fo undat i n 4 fail ure o f 50 Pil es b eari ng 48 ; drawi ng 54 n e t 1 w i r h i 8 u d e s c ; 5 4 ; g g t m h r t i b r 47 8 8 4 ; 4 Pi ne Am e ri an 2 8 ; C anada red 2 8 c i t h 2 8 ; no rt h e rn 2 8 p Pi pe s and c lay go o ds 2 0 lead Pi t ch pi ne 2 8 Pi tch o f riv t s 1 74 ; o f roo fs 1 0 0 Pi tch i ng pi ece 1 55 Pl ace bri ck s 1 9 Pl ai n t il es 1 0 1 1 0 2 Pl ank s 2 8 Pl as te r 2 5 1 1 4 1 55 I 85 k eying f 69 o f Pa i s 2 6 2 0 9 Pl as t er e rs put t y 2 1 0 Pl as t e r e rs w r k 2 0 9 ; m ate ri al s u ed by 2 0 9 Pl a t ri ng 2 0 9 2 1 2 Pl at I 42 ,

cem e nt , 2 0 9

ir

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I ndex

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li h l k i i i bl

1 17

90

ir rs

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1 1 , 1 80

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;

90

,

P nt , 1 1 9 P ug , wo o d, 1 1 4 Po c e t p e c e , 1 1 4 as ta d t uc , Po nt ng , 68, 1 0 4 flat o nt , ue o r 69 ac , 69 68 t uc , 68 Po e p at e , 90 Po ng o a ds , 39 ’ o o ng Po o e s pat e nt o nd ng o t es , 1 0 6 Po o m e, 2 3 Po t and c e m e nt , 2 4, 2 0 9 s t o ne , 2 2 Po s t , k ng, 90 ; q ue e n, 90 , 9 1

b

bl k

k

r

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k

l l li b r l b i r ll r fi il r li rl i ri n c 90 p P t s C h i m n y 89 20 Pr e d bri k 8 P re v nt i o n o f dam p in wall 5 Pri k i ng up 2 1 3 P in e t 0 9 p Pri nc ipal raft 90 1 99 Pr po r t i o n f flang 1 79 Puddl ball 33 P ddl ed b ar 33 ; s t el 36 Puddli ng ir n 33 Pugg d flo o r 1 93 P g g i ng 2 1 7 Pul l y 1 1 4 ; tyl e 1 1 4 e ss ,

o

e

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