Academic Book Rac.docx

T.E. SEM II 2018 – 2019 Scheme, Syllabus and Evaluation Guidelines Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 302049 Course Code 302049

Course Name

Lecture Assigned Theory 3

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Practical 2

Tutorial -

Average of two class test

Attendance

Teacher assessment

End Sem. Exam

Total

Internal

External

Total

RAC

Prelim

302049

Class test 2

Course Course Code Name

Practical

Class test 1

Examination Evaluation Scheme Theory Internal Assessment Ext

Total 5

20

20

70

20

5

5

70

100

-

25

25

SYLLABUS Unit I: Applications of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning and Refrigerants: A] Applications : Domestic Refrigerator, Domestic Air Conditioners, Automotive Air Conditioners, Evaporative coolers, water coolers, Commercial Refrigeration- Dairy, Cold storage, Ice plant, Commercial Air Conditioning-Multiplex, Hospitals. B] Refrigerants : Classification of refrigerants, Designation of refrigerants, Desirable properties of refrigerants, environmental issues, Ozone depletion and global warming, ODP, GWP & LCCP, selection of environment friendly refrigerants, secondary refrigerants, antifreeze solutions, Zeotropes and Azeotropes, refrigerant: recovery reclaims, recycle and recharge. Unit II: Vapour Refrigeration Systems A] Vapour compression systems: Working of simple vapour compression system, representation of vapour compression cycle (VCC) on T-s and P-h diagram, COP, EER, SEER, IPLV, NPLV, effect of operating parameters on performance of VCC, actual VCC, methods of improving COP using flash chamber, sub-cooling, liquid vapour heat exchanger, comparison of VCC with Reverse Carnot cycle. B] Vapour absorption systems : Introduction, Working of simple vapour absorption system (VAS), desirable properties of binary mixture (aqua-ammonia), performance evaluation of simple VAS (simple numerical treatment), actual VAS, Li-Br absorption system, three fluid system (Electrolux refrigeration), applications of VAS, comparison between VCC and VAC.

Unit III: Multiple pressure Refrigeration Systems : Introduction, need of multistage system, Intermediate pressure, two stage compression with flash gas removal and liquid intercooler, single compressor with multiple evaporator: individual and multiple expansion valves, individual compressors, cascade system: application and numerical(numerical only by using p-h chart), Introduction to cryogenics (Linde - Hampson cycle) and applications (no numerical treatment) Unit IV: Psychrometry and Air conditioning load estimation A] Psychrometry: Basic Psychrometry and processes, BPF of coil, ADP, adiabatic mixing of two air streams, SHF, RSHF, GSHF, ESHF. Factors contributing to cooling load, Numerical based on load analysis . B] Human Comfort : Thermodynamics of human body, comfort and comfort chart, factors affecting human comfort, concept of infiltration and ventilation, indoor air quality requirements. Unit V: Air Conditioning Systems : A] Air Conditioning Systems : Working of summer, winter and all year round AC systems, all air system, all water system, air water system, variable refrigerant flow and variable air volume systems, unitary and central air conditioning. B]Components of refrigeration and air conditioning systems : Working of reciprocating, screw and scroll compressors, working of air cooled, water cooled and evaporative condensers, working of DX, Flooded, Forced feed evaporators, Expansion devices – Capillary tube, TXV, EXV, operating and safety controls. Unit VI : Air Distribution Systems: A] Ducts : Classification of ducts, duct material, pressure in ducts, flow through duct, pressure losses in duct (friction losses, dynamic losses), air flow through simple duct system,

equivalent diameter, Methods of duct system design: equal friction, velocity reduction, static regain method (numerical on duct system design) B] Air handling unit : Air handling unit, Fan coil unit, types of fans used air conditioning applications, fan laws, filters, supply and return grills, sensors (humidity, temperature, smoke). Books: Text Books: 1. Arora C. P., Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Tata McGraw-Hill. 2. Manohar Prasad, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Willey Eastern Ltd, 1983. 3. McQuiston, ― Heating Ventilating and air Conditioning: Analysis and Design‖ 6th Edition, Wiley India . 4. Arora and Domkundwar, Refrigeration & Air Conditioning, Dhanpatrai & Company, New Delhi . 5. Khurmi R.S. and Gupta J.K., Refrigeration and Air conditioning, Eurasia Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi,1994. 6. Ballaney P.L., Refrigeration and Air conditioning, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1992. References Books: 1. Dossat Ray J, Principles of refrigeration, S.I. version, Willey Eastern Ltd, 2000 . 2. Stockers W.F and Jones J.W., Refrigeration and Air conditioning, McGraw Hill International editions 1982. 3. Threlkeld J.L, Thermal Environmental Engineering, Prentice Hall Inc., New Delhi 4. Aanatnarayan, Basics of refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Tata McGraw Hill Publications . 5. Roger Legg, Air Conditioning System Design, Commissioning and Maintenance . 6. ASHRAE & ISHRAE handbook.

EVALUATION GUIDELINES Internal Assessment (IA): [CT(20 marks)+ TA/AT (10 marks)] Class Test (CT) [20 marks]: - Three class tests, 20 marks each, will be conducted in a semester and out of these three, the average of best two will be selected for calculation of class test marks. Format of question paper is same as university TA [5 marks]: Three/four assignments will be conducted in the semester. Teacher assessment will be calculated based on performance in assignments, class test and pre-university test. Attendance (AT) [5 marks]: Attendance marks will be given as per university policy. Paper pattern and marks distribution for Class tests: 1. Question paper will comprise of 3 Section A, B and C with internal choice of questions. 2. Section A contains 5 short answer type questions of 1 mark each. All questions are compulsory. (Total 5 Marks) 3. Section B contains 4 medium answer type questions of 2.5 marks each. All questions are compulsory. (Total 10 marks) 4. Section C contains 1 long answer type questions of 5 marks. (Total 5 marks) Pre-University Test [ 70 Marks] Paper pattern and marks distribution for PUT: Same as End semester exam End Semester Examination [ 70 Marks] Paper pattern and marks distribution for End Semester Exam: As per university guidelines.

LECTURE PLAN

Lect. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20.

Lecture Unit 1 Domestic Refrigerator, Domestic Air Conditioners, Automotive Air Conditioners Evaporative coolers, water coolers Commercial Refrigeration- Dairy, Cold storage, Ice plant Commercial Air Conditioning-Multiplex, Hospitals Classification of refrigerants, Designation of refrigerants Desirable properties of refrigerants, environmental issues, Ozone depletion and global warming ODP, GWP & LCCP, selection of environment friendly refrigerants secondary refrigerants, anti-freeze solutions, Zeotropes Azeotropes, refrigerant: recovery reclaims, recycle and recharge Unit 2 Working of simple vapour compression system, representation of vapour compression cycle (VCC) on T-s and P-h diagram Numerical on above concepts

Unit

Unit 1 Unit 1 Unit 1 Unit 1 Unit 1 Unit 1 Unit 1 Unit 1 Unit 1

Unit 2

Unit 2

COP, EER, SEER, IPLV, NPLV, effect of operating parameters on performance of VCC actual VCC, methods of improving COP using flash chamber

Unit 2

sub-cooling, liquid vapour heat exchanger, comparison of VCC with Reverse Carnot cycle Introduction, Working of simple vapour absorption system (VAS), desirable properties of binary mixture (aquaammonia) performance evaluation of simple VAS (simple numerical treatment), actual VAS, Li-Br absorption system three fluid system (Electrolux refrigeration) applications of VAS, comparison between VCC and VAC Unit 3 Introduction, need of multistage system, Intermediate pressure two stage compression with flash gas removal and liquid intercooler single compressor with multiple evaporator: individual and

Unit 2

Unit 2

Unit 2

Unit 2 Unit 2

Unit 3 Unit 3 Unit 3

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

multiple expansion valves individual compressors, cascade system: application numerical(numerical only by using p-h chart) Introduction to cryogenics (Linde - Hampson cycle) and applications Unit 4 Basic Psychrometry and processes BPF of coil, ADP, adiabatic mixing of two air streams SHF, RSHF, GSHF, ESHF Factors contributing to cooling load, Numerical based on load analysis Thermodynamics of human body, comfort and comfort chart factors affecting human comfort concept of infiltration and ventilation, indoor air quality requirements Working of summer, winter and all year round AC systems all air system, all water system, air water system variable refrigerant flow and variable air volume systems unitary and central air conditioning Unit 5 Working of reciprocating, screw and scroll compressors working of air cooled, water cooled condenser evaporative condensers, working of DX evaporator Flooded, Forced feed evaporators Expansion devices – Capillary tube TXV, EXV, operating and safety controls Unit 6 Classification of ducts, duct material pressure in ducts, flow through duct pressure losses in duct (friction losses, dynamic losses), air flow through simple duct system equivalent diameter, Methods of duct system design: equal friction velocity reduction, static regain method (numerical on duct system design) Air handling unit, Fan coil unit types of fans used air conditioning applications, fan laws filters, supply and return grills, sensors (humidity, temperature, smoke) Numericals

Unit 3 Unit 3 Unit 3

Unit 4 Unit 4 Unit 4 Unit 4 Unit 4 Unit 4 Unit 4 Unit 4 Unit 4 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 5 Unit 5 Unit 5 Unit 5 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 6 Unit 6 Unit 6 Unit 6 Unit 6 Unit 6 Unit 6 Unit 6

COURSE DELIVERY, OBJECTIVES, OUTCOMES Refrigeration & Air Conditioning (302049) Semester V Course Delivery: The course will be delivered through lectures, assignment/tutorial sessions, class room interaction, and presentations. Course Objectives:  Learning the fundamental principles and different methods of refrigeration and air conditioning.  Study of various refrigeration cycles and evaluate performance using Mollier charts and/ or refrigerant property tables.  Comparative study of different refrigerants with respect to properties, applications and environmental issues.  Understand the basic air conditioning processes on psychometric charts, calculate cooling load for its applications in comfort and industrial air conditioning.  Study of the various equipment-operating principles, operating and safety controls employed in refrigeration air conditioning systems Course Outcomes: On successful completion of the course, the student will be able to 1. CO1: - Illustrate the fundamental principles and applications of refrigeration and air conditioning (L1 – Knowledge, L2 – Comprehension) 2. CO2: Obtain cooling capacity and coefficient of performance by conducting test on vapour compression refrigeration systems. (L2 – Comprehension, L3 – Application) 3. CO3: Present the properties, applications and environmental issues of different refrigerants(L1 – Knowledge, L2 – Comprehension) 4. CO4: Calculate cooling load for air conditioning systems used for various applications (L3 – Application, L4 – Analysis) 5. CO5: Operate and analyze the refrigeration and air conditioning systems . (L3 – Application, L4 – Analysis) 6. CO6: To study the basic properties of air and various psychrometric processes. (L1 – Knowledge, L2 – Comprehension)

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POS): Engineering Graduates will be able to: 1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems. 2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences. 3.Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations. 4.Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions. 5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations. 6.The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice. 7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development. 8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice. 9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings. 10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions. 11.Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a

member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments. 12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

CO – PO Mapping PO1

PO2

PO3

PO4

PO5

PO6

PO7

PO8

PO9

PO 10

PO 11

PO 12

C0302044-1

3

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C0302044-2

2

1

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C0302044-3

2

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C0302044-4

2

2

2

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C0302044-5

2

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2

2

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C0302044-6

2

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2

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Average

2

1

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JUSTIFICATION OF CO - PO MAPPING

CO1 WITH PO1

CO2 WITH PO1 AND PO2

CO3 WITH PO1,PO6 AND PO7

CO4 WITH PO1,PO2 AND PO3

According to CO1 students get fundamental knowledge of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. So it is strongly correlated to PO1. According to CO2 students get knowledge of VCC and apply them to solve problems. So it is moderately correlated to PO1 andPO2. According to CO3 students get knowledge properties, applications and environmental, health issues of different refrigerants. So it is moderately correlated to PO1,PO6 and strongly correlated with PO7 According to CO4 students get knowledge related to cooling load for air conditioning systems used for various applications Hence CO4 is moderately correlated to PO1, PO2,PO3

CO5 WITH PO1,PO4 AND PO5

According to CO5 students get knowledge of Operation and analyze the refrigeration and air conditioning systems. Hence CO5 is moderately correlated to PO1, PO4 and PO5.

CO6 WITH PO1,AND PO3

According to CO6 students get knowledge of properties of air and various psychrometric processes which is helpful for design air conditioning system. Hence CO6 is moderately correlated to PO1and PO3.

QUESTION BANK Unit No. 1 1. Explain with neat sketch Automotive Air conditioners. 2. Explain the need of air conditioning for multiplex facilities. 3. Explain the role of refrigeration system in dairy plant 4. Discuss the necessity of phasing out of CFC refrigerants. List the refrigerants. 5. Explain the benefits of Secondary refrigerants. What is selection secondary refrigerants? 6. Give important conditions of Montreal and Kyoto protocol.

CO1 CO1 CO1 alternative CO3 criteria of CO3 CO3

Unit No. 2 1. The temperature limits of an ammonia refrigerating system are 25oC and -10o C. If the gas is dry at the end of compression. Calculate the COP assuming no undercooling of the liquid ammonia. CO2 2. In an absorption system heating, cooling and refrigeration takes place at 150oC, 30oC, and -20oC resp. Find the theoretical COP of the system. If the generator temperature is increased to 190oC and evaporator temperature is decreased to - 30oC, find the percentage change in theoretical COP. CO2 3. A 5 TR refrigerating machine based on R-134a simple saturated vapour compression cycle operates between 12oC and 50oC. Temperature after subcooler is less by 5oC. Determine 1. COP 2. Power per ton 3. Mass circulation of refrigerant in kg/hr. CO2 4. Draw the neat schematic of practical Li-Br absorption system. List the various components with their function in brief. CO5 5. What is the basic function of a compressor in a vapour compression refrigeration system? How this function is achieved in vapour absorption system. CO5

Unit No. 3 1. Write a note on Cascade refrigeration. CO5 2. What do you understand by Cryogenics? Mention Applications. CO1 3. Mention with the help of p-h charts various combination of evaporators and compressors in vapour compression system. CO5 4. Two separate evaporators E1 (10 TR) and E2 (20 TR) at temperatures 5 oC and 15oC resp. Common condenser is at temperature 38oC. The liquid from the condenser

is saturated. After evaporator E2, pressure reducing valve bring the pressure to the suction pressure of the compressor. Single compressor and individual expansion valves are used in the system. Make the neat flow diagram and a cycle diagram on R134a p-h chart. Calculate Power required to run the system and COP of the system. 5. Ice factory produces 20 tonnes of ice per day from and at 0 oC. The evaporator temperature is -8oC and condenser temperature of 30oC. Refrigerant R-12 is subcooled by 5oC before throttling. Suction vapours are superheated by 2 degree. If the single acting twin cylinder compressor has speed of 1000 rpm, L:D ratio is 1.5. Find – a. COP CO2 b. Condenser capacity including subcooling c. Stroke length, if volumetric efficiency of compressor is 94.5%

Unit No. 4 1. Define: RSHF, GSHF and ESHF. Explain the procedure to draw the lines of RSHF, GSHF and ESHF on psychrometric chart. CO6 2. Elaborate in detail factors contributing cooling load. CO4 3. Write a note on Human Comfort Chart . CO6 o 4. If the total barometric pressure is 97 kPa and DBT = 36 C and DPT = 15oC, from fundamentals find the properties of moist air. CO6 o o o 5. DBT of air 32 C and WBT is 20 C, is passed through cooling coil at 5 C saturation temperature. The heat extracted by coil is 14 kW; and air flow rate is 42.5 m 3 /min. Using Psychrometric chart Find DBT and WBT of air leaving coil, By pass factor of cooling coil CO6 o 6. An Air-conditioned space is maintained at 25 C DBT and 50% RH. The outside conditions are 40oC DBT and 25oC WBT. The space has sensible heat gain of 24.5 kW. Conditioned air is supplied to the space as saturated air at 10 oC. The equipment consists of an air washer. The air entering the air washer comprises 25% outside air. Calculate the following. a. Volume flow rate of air supplied to space b. Latent heat gain of space c. Cooling load of air washer CO4

Unit No. 5 1. Draw constructional diagram of TXV and explain its working. What are the limitations of TXV. CO5 2. Explain with neat sketch All Year Air Conditioning System CO6 3. Write a note on Variable Refrigeration Flow system. CO1 4. Explain the working of Single Screw Compressor. What are the advantages of it over reciprocating compressor? CO1

Unit No. 6 1. Explain Equal friction method of Duct design. List its advantages and disadvantages. CO6 2. Write a note on Fan Laws. CO6 3. A circular duct of 40 cm diameter is used to carry air in an air conditioning system at a velocity of 440 m/min. If this duct is to be replaced by a rectangular duct of aspect ratio of 1.5, find out the size of rectangular duct for equal friction method. When a. Velocity of air in two ducts is same b. The discharge rate of air in two ducts is same CO6 If f=0.015, find out the pressure loss per 100 m length of the duct. Take density of air = 1.15 kg/m3. 4. A rectangular duct of 0.15 m *0.12 m is 20 m long and carries standard air at the rate of 0.3 m3 /s. Calculate the total pressure required at the inlet of the duct to maintain this flow and the air power required. Take friction factor, f=0.005 CO6

Class Test –I Academic Year (2018-19)

Branch-TE Mechanical Semester: II Subject: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (302049)

Date: Duration: 1 hour Max Marks: 20M

Note: 1. All questions are compulsory 2. Bloom’s Taxanomy level: Bloom Levels (BL):1.Remember 2.Understand 4.Create 3. All questions are as per course outcomes 4. Assume suitable data wherever is required

Q. No 1

2 3 4

Questions A Refrigeration system operates on reversed carnot cycle. The higher temp of refrigerant in the system is 350C & lowest temp is -150C.The capacity is 12 tonnes.Neglect all losses. Determine 1)C.O.P (2) Heat rejected from the system per hour.(3) Power required. Explain (1) ODP(2)GWP (3)LCCP Explain I) Domestic Refrigerator II)Automotive air conditioners Write short note on selection of Environment friendly refrigerants

Max. Marks 05

Unit No as per Syllabus 1

3.Apply

CO Map ped CO1

Blooms Taxanomy Level

2

05 05 05

1

CO3

2

CO2

2

CO3

2 1 1

Class Test –I Academic Year (2018-19)

Branch-TE Mechanical Semester: II Subject: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (302049)

Date: Duration: 1 hour Max Marks: 20M

Note: 1. All questions are compulsory 2. Bloom’s Taxanomy level: Bloom Levels (BL):1.Remember 2.Understand 4.Create 3. All questions are as per course outcomes 4. Assume suitable data wherever is required

Q. No

Max. Marks

Questions

3.Apply

Unit No as per Syllabus 1

CO Map ped CO1

1

CO1

Blooms Taxanomy Level 1

1

Define (1) COPR (2)COPHP (3)EER (4)SEER (5)TR

2

What is sub-cooling and superheating ? Discuss the effect of vapour superheating and liquid sub-cooling on performance of vapour compression refrigeration system.

05

3

Explain Li-Br absorption system

05

2

CO2

2

4

Compare the COP of an ammonia refrigeration cycle operates between – 20°C and 30°C. in following two cases.

05

2

CO2

1

1) Wet compression, in which vapour leaving the compressor is dry saturated.

05

2

2) Dry Compression, in which vapour entering the compressor is dry saturated. Assume compression to be isentropic and no subcooling of liquid refrigerant. Take Cpl = 4.6 kJ/kgk, Cpv = 2.8 kJ/kgk. Use following properties for refrigerant Temp – 20°C 30°C.

Sp. Enthalpy(kj/Kg) hf 89.8 323.1

hfg 1330.2 1145.8

Sp.Entropy (KJ/KgK) hg 1420.0 1468.9

Sf 0.3684 1.2037

Sg 5.6244 4.9842

Class Test –II Academic Year (2018-19)

Branch-TE Mechanical Semester: II Subject: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (302049)

Date: Duration: 1 hour Max Marks: 20M

Note: 1. All questions are compulsory 2. Bloom’s Taxanomy level: Bloom Levels (BL):1.Remember 2.Understand 4.Create 3. All questions are as per course outcomes 4. Assume suitable data wherever is required

Q. No 1

2 3 4

Questions

Max. Marks

Derive equation of COP for the two stage compression with flash gas removal and liquid intercooler with schematic and 05 P-h diagram Mention any two applications of cryogenics. 05 Explain air washer and possible psychometric processes 05 with it . A mixture of dry air and water vapour is at a temperature of 21°C under a total pressure of 736 mm Hg. The dew point temperature is 15°C. Find:i) Partial pressure of water 05 vapour ii) Relative humidity iii) Humidity ratio iv)Enthalpy of air per kg of dry air v) Specific volume of dry air per kg of dry air.

Unit No as per Syllabus 3

3.Apply

CO Map ped CO5

Blooms Taxanomy Level 2

3 4

CO1 CO6

4

CO6

1 1

2

Class Test –II Academic Year (2018-19)

Branch-TE Mechanical Semester: II Subject: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (302049)

Date: Duration: 1 hour Max Marks: 20M

Note: 1. All questions are compulsory 2. Bloom’s Taxanomy level: Bloom Levels (BL):1.Remember 2.Understand 4.Create 3. All questions are as per course outcomes 4. Assume suitable data wherever is required

Q. No 1

Questions

3.Apply

Max. Marks

Unit No CO as per Map Syllabus ped 05 and an3 individual CO5 A multi evaporator refrigeration system with individual compressors expansion valves using R-22 as the refrigerant as shown in Fig. Neglecting undercooling of liquid and superheating of vapour refrigerant.

Blooms Taxanomy Level 2

Find i) Power required to run the system. ii) COP 2 3

4

Explain Cascade refrigeration system with schematic and p-h diagram Define and explain following i) Dew point temperature ii)Specific humidity iii)Partial pressure of water vapour iv) Wet Bulb Temperature. A commercial shop has following loads: Room sensible heat : 58.15 kW Room latent heat : 14.54 kW. The summer outside and inside design conditions are : Outside: 40°C DBT, 27°C WBT Inside: 25°C DBT, 50% RH. 70 m3/min of ventilation air is used. Determine the following if the bypass factor of the cooling coil is 0.15. Find i) Ventilation load ii) Grand total heat iii) Grand sensible heat factor iv) Effective room sensible heat factor v) Apparatus dew point

05

3

CO1

2

05

4

CO6

1

05

4

CO6

3

UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPER