A Natural Disaster Is The Consequence Of A Natural Hazard

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 A natural disaster is the consequence of a natural hazard (e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquake, or landslide) which affects human activities. Human vulnerability, exacerbated by the lack of planning or appropriate emergency management, leads to financial, environmental or human losses. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster, their resilience.[1] This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability".[2] A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas. The term natural has consequently been disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters without human involvement.

    (also known as a tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are recorded with a seismometer, also known as a seismograph. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported, or the related and mostly obsolete Richter magnitude, with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being mostly imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacing the ground. When a large earthquake epicenter is located offshore, the seabed sometimes suffers sufficient displacement to cause a tsunami. The shaking in earthquakes can also trigger landslides and occasionally volcanic activity. In its most generic sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic eventͶ whether a natural phenomenon or an event caused by humansͶthat generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear experiments. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The term epicenter refers to the point at ground level directly above this.

        Fault typesTectonic earthquakes will occur anywhere within the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. In the case of transform or convergent type plate boundaries, which form the largest fault surfaces on earth, they will move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the boundary that increase the frictional resistance. Most boundaries do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behaviour. Once the boundary has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of

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the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual buildup of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the Elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's deep interior.[1]

        Main article: Fault (geology) There are three main types of fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the displacement along the fault is in the direction of dip and movement on them involves a vertical component. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended such as a divergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent boundary. Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other ; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip.

         Where plate boundaries occur within continental lithosphere, deformation is spread out a over a much larger area than the plate boundary itself. In the case of the San Andreas fault continental transform, many earthquakes occur away from the plate boundary and are related to strains developed within the broader zone of deformation caused by major irregularities in the fault trace (e.g. the ͞Big bend͟ region). The Northridge earthquake was associated with movement on a blind thrust within such a zone. Another example is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary between the Arabian and Eurasian plates where it runs through the northwestern part of the Zagros mountains. The deformation associated with this plate boundary is partitioned into nearly pure thrust sense movements perpendicular to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and nearly pure strike-slip motion along the Main Recent Fault close to the actual plate boundary itself. This is demonstrated by earthquake focal mechanisms. [2] All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighbouring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading (e.g. deglaciation). These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise to intraplate earthquakes.[3]

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!    The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire in depths not exceeding tens of kilometers. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70 km are classified as 'shallow-focus' earthquakes, while those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300 km are commonly termed 'midfocus' or 'intermediate-depth' earthquakes. In subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate, deep-focus earthquakes may occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700 kilometers).[4] These seismically active areas of subduction are known as Wadati-Benioff zones. Deep-focus earthquakes occur at a depth at which the subducted lithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for the generation of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine undergoing a phase transition into a spinel structure.[5]

   "  "  Earthquakes also often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both by tectonic faults and by the movement of magma in volcanoes. Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, like during the Mount St. Helens eruption of 1980.[6]

    Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time.[7]

  Main article: Aftershock An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, themainshock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude. If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as a foreshock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock.[7]

    February 2008 earthquake swarm near MexicaliMain article: Earthquake swarm Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have notable higher

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magnitudes than the other. An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park.[8]

     Main article: Earthquake storm Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort of earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th century and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East.[9][10]

#       Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in places like California and Alaska in the U.S., as well as in Guatemala. Chile, Peru, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan, the Azores in Portugal, Turkey, New Zealand, Greece, Italy, and Japan, but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere, including New York City, London, and Australia.[11] Larger earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship being exponential; for example, roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. In the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it has been calculated that the average recurrences are: an earthquake of 3.7 - 4.6 every year, an earthquake of 4.7 - 5.5 every 10 years, and an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every 100 years. [12] This is an example of the Gutenberg-Richter law. The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931 to many thousands today. As a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes. The USGS estimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7.0-7.9) and one great earthquake (magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable.[13] In recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has decreased, although this is thought likely to be a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend. More detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from the USGS.[14]

Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000-km-long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, also known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate.[15][16] Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the Himalayan Mountains. Humans can cause

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earthquakes for example by constructing large dams and buildings, drilling and injecting liquid into wells, and by coal mining and oil drilling.[17] With the rapid growth of mega-cities such as Mexico City, Tokyo or Tehran, in areas of high seismic risk, some seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to 3 million people.[18][19]

  $     1755 copper engraving depicting Lisbon in ruins and in flames after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. A tsunami overwhelms the ships in the harbor.There are many effects of earthquakes including, but not limited to the following:

        Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings or other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation.[20] The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration. Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits. Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the earth's surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several metres in the case of major earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure.[21]

   "   Main article: Landslide Landslides are a major geologic hazard because they can happen at any place in the world, much like earthquakes. Severe storms, earthquakes, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires can all produce slope instability. Landslide danger may be possible even though emergency personnel are attempting rescue.[22]

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›   Fires of the 1906 San Francisco earthquakeFollowing an earthquake, fires can be generated by break of the electrical power or gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For example, the deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were caused more by the fires than by the earthquake itself.[23]

    Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, as buildings or bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. This can be a devastating effect of earthquakes. For example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, many buildings were sunk into the ground by soil liquefaction, eventually collapsing upon themselves.[24]


  The tsunami of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquakeMain article: Tsunami Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by an sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water. In the open ocean, the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers, and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600800 kilometers per hour, depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them.[25] Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the richter scale do not cause tsunamis. However, there have been recorded instances, yet most destructive tsunamis are caused by magnitude 7.5 plus earthquakes.[25] Tsunamis are distinct from tidal waves, because in a tsunami, water flows straight instead of in a circle like the typical wave. Earthquake-triggered landslides into the sea can also cause tsunamis.[26]

› Main article: Flood

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A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land.[27] Floods usually occur because of the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which then collapse and cause floods.[28] The terrain below the Sarez Lake in Tajikistan is in danger of catastrophic flood if the landslide dam formed by the earthquake, known as the Usoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood could affect roughly 5 million people.[29]

„   Earthquakes may result in disease, lack of basic necessities, loss of life, higher insurance premiums, general property damage, road and bridge damage, and collapse of buildings or destabilization of the base of buildings which may lead to collapse in future earthquakes. Earthquakes can also lead to volcanic eruptions, which cause further damages such as substantial crop damage, like in the "Year Without a Summer" (1816).[30] Most of civilization agrees that human death is the most significant human impact of earthquakes.[31]

%         Today, there are ways to protect and prepare possible sites of earthquakes from severe damage, through the following processes: Earthquake engineering, Earthquake preparedness, Household seismic safety, Seismic retrofit (including special fasteners, materials, and techniques), Seismic hazard, Mitigation of seismic motion, and Earthquake prediction.

      [edit] Mythology and religion In Norse mythology, earthquakes were explained as the violent struggling of the god Loki. When Loki, god of mischief and strife, murdered Baldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by being bound in a cave with a poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom. Loki's wife Sigyn stood by him with a bowl to catch the poison, but whenever she had to empty the bowl the poison would drip on Loki's face, forcing him to jerk his head away and thrash against his bonds, causing the earth to tremble.[32]

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In Gree
my  y Pose  on was the god of and cause earthquakes When he was in a bad mood, he would strike the ground with a trident, causing this and other calamities He also used earthquakes to punish and inflict fear upon people as revenge [33]

 an overflow of an epanse of water that submerges land, a deluge [1] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, e ceeding the total capacity of its bounds, with the result that some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body It can also occur in rivers, when the strength of the river is so high it flows out of the river channel, particularly at bends or meanders The word comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Teutonic languages (compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float). The term "The Flood," capitalized, usually refers to the great Universal Deluge described in the Bible, in Genesis, and is treated at Deluge.

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he New Or
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3,000 2,910 2,775

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oods, mud-rock f
ows ›u4an, Anhu, Zhe4ang 1,624 f
ood 1,605±3,363

.ang
adesh

Inda #&orv, Gu4ara$

1979

Peru

1962

Ia
y

1963

Paksan, Inda

1992

hna

1991

hna

2005

Ha, ÷omncan 2004 epub
c S. &arn f
ood, sorm surge Neher
ands 1686 sprng  

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1,532 1,503

1,437

1,348 1,144 1,029 1,000±1,500 992 941 933 915 848 844 827 800 800 785

705

702 672

2002 hna f
ood, orrena
f
oods, mud-rock f
ows &umba and he surroundng sae &aharashra, Kamaaka, monsson ran 1995 hna f
ood, man
y, Hunan, Jangx, Laonng, Schuan, ›u4an, orrena
ran, devasang f
oods, mud-rock f
ows 2007 hna f
ood, mounan orrens, mud-rock f
ows 2006 Souhern Leye muds
de 2004 hna f
ood, mounan orrens, mud-rock f
ows,
ands
de Sana aarna, [2]ubarão], orrena
heavy ran Isahaya, massve ran and muds
de Inuyama Iruka pond fa
ure 1938 &assve ran of Japan, man
y okyo, Kobe, massve ran and
ands
de .arce
ona, f
ash f
ood 1977 Karach f
ood 2006 Norh Korea f
oodng A
gers, .ab E
Oued, devasang f
ood, muds
de Norh Sea f
ood, sorm surge 2000 &o"amb%ue f
ood 1967 .ra"
f
ood, man
y o de Janero, Sao Pau
o, f
ood and
ands
de 2006 Ehopa f
ood, man
y Omo ver ÷e
a, ÷re ÷awa, ena, Gode, f
ash f
ood, heavyran 1999 Venam f
ood, man
y occurred a hua hen Hue 1972 Seou
, Kyongg f
ood

hna

2002

Inda

2005

hna

1995

hna

2007

Ph
ppnes

2006

hna

2004

.ra"


1974

Japan

1957

Japan

1868

Japan

1938

Span Paksan Norh Korea

1962 1977 2006

A
gera

2001

Neher
ands &o"amb%ue

1825 2000

.ra"


1967

Ehopa

2006

Venam

1999

Souh Korea

1972

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653 640 610 540 532

517 506 500 500 464 445

429

425 421 420

408

407

405 400 400 386

1972 Lu"on f
ood Ph
ppnes 1987 V

ana
ands
de o
omba dsaser 2007 Norh Korea f
oodng Norh Korea 1969 unsa f
oodng unsa u"co, Hua

aga, orrena
Peru ran, f
oodng,
ands
de 1967 &assve ran of Japan, man
y, Kobe, Kure, Agano Japan ver, massve ran and
ands
de KwaZu
u-Naa
Souh Afrca &a
aw, f
ash f
ood and &a
aw
ands
de Gau
da
,
ands
de Norway Lsbon f
ash f
ood Poruga
Wesern Japan, massve ran Japan and
ands
de 2002 Nepa
f
ood, man
y occurred a &akwanpur, Nepa
monssna
ran, f
ood,
ands
de 1999 &exco f
ood, man
y occurred a abasco, Pueb
a, &exco hapas, f
ood and muds
de &a
passe ÷am fa
ure ›rance S. Aarons ›
ood Amserdam 1969 Souh Korea f
ood, man
y, Gyeongsangbukdo, Gyeongsangnamdo, Souh Korea Gangwon, orrena
ran,
ands
de 1993 Iran f
ood, man
y occurred a Isfahan, .andar Iran Abass, f
ash f
ood and
ands
de 1998 Souh Korea f
ood, Souh Korea heavy massve ran,
ands
de 1955 Lebanon rpo
 f
ood Lebanon Uned Saes S. ›rancs ÷am fa
ure #a
forna$ ha
and, &a
aysa, man
y, ha
and,

1972 1987 2007 1969 1982

1967 1987 1991 1345 1967 1972

2002

1999 1959 1420

1969

1993

1998 1955 1928 1988

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Nakhon, Songkh
a, Ke
anan, orrena
ran

385

Oho ver f
ood of 1937

&a
aysa, Uned Saes #Pennsy
vana, Oho, Wes 1937 Vrgna, Kenucky, Indana, I

nos$

>360

1966 o de Janero f
ood, f
ood and
ands
de Pura, umbes, orrena
ran, f
oodng,
ands
de Grea ÷ayon ›
ood

353

2007 Afrcan Naons f
ood

347

1996 Yemen f
ood 1987 Souh Korea f
ood, man
y, hungchongnamdo, Souh Korea ho

anamdo, Kangwon, orrena
ran,
ands
de Kenya, Ehopa, 2006 Eas Afrcan ›
ood Soma
a Norh Sea f
ood of 1962 Germany sorm de 2003 Sumara f
ood, man
y Jamb, .aanghar, ondano, Indonesa orrena
ran, f
ash f
ood,
ands
de Quebrada .
anca canyon, o
omba
ands
de Pampayaca ava
anche Peru Nagasak, massve ran and Japan
ands
de o de Janero and .ra"
›
umnense f
ood 1973 Granada, A
mera, Span &urca f
ood Grea Sheffe
d f
ood dam Uned Kngdom

373 364

345

342 315

313

300 300 299 290 272 270

.ra"


1966

Peru

1983

Uned Saes 1913 man
y Sudan, Ngera, .urkna ›aso, Ghana, 2007 Kenya, and many Afrcan counry Yemen 1996 1987

2006 1962

2003

1974 1963 1982 1988 1973 1864

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159 154

dsaser Va
d Sava dam dsaser Gormec, ava
anche 1966 &aan f
ood 1998 a4ksan f
ood Josefna dam fa
ure apd y, Souh ÷akoa f
ood &arrakesh f
ash f
ood hungar
ands
de, f
ood, ava
anche Pamr &ounan area, mud and rock s
des, orrena
ran Hugra,
ands
de 2004 .ra"
f
ood, man
y Sao Pau
o, Pemambuco, orrena
ran, muds
de Sarno f
ood and
ands
de KwaZu
u-Naa


144

Aberfan dsaser

135

104

O"enge
, ava
anche I"umo, massve ran and muds
de 1991 Anofagasa ›
ood, mud swep 2007 enra
and Eas Java orrena
monsson ran,
ands
de, f
ood &asuda, massve ran and
ands
de Verda
,
ands
de Seou
, Inchon, heavy ran norhern aucasas, norhern Okrug, heavy ran,
ands
de 1981 Langsburg f
ood

98

›
ood of he m

ennum

94

&ameyes ÷saser

268 261 259 255 250 238 230 200±600 200 190 165

128 120 119 117 116 114 110

Ia
y urkey Jordan a4ksan Ecuador

1985 1992 1966 1998 1993

Uned Saes

1972

&orocco

1995

Peru

1971

a4ksan

1992

Ecuador

1931

.ra"


2004

Ia
y Souh Afrca Uned Kngdom #Wa
es$ urkey

1998 1995

Japan

1964

h
e

1991

Indonesa

2007

Japan

1983

Norway Souh Korea

1893 1990

ussa

2002

Souh Afrca Po
and, "ech epub
c Puero co #Ponce$

1981

1966 1993

1997 1985

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o
umbus, Oho f
ood on Uned Saes &arch 25, 1913 Ho
mfrh ›
ood².
berry Uned Kngdom eservor dam fa
ure Johnsown ›
ood²›a
ure of Laure
un ÷am and f
ash Uned Saes f
oodng Ausn ÷am fa
ure Uned Saes Kagoshma, muds
de and Japan debrs f
ow Gudbrandsda
en f
ood and Norway
ands
des 2005
evee fa
ures n Uned Saes Greaer New Or
eans ›rank S
de, A
bera anada &c÷ona
d ÷am fa
ure Uned saes Yuba y, a
forna hrsmas Eve f
ood,
evee Uned Saes fa
ure Norh Sea f
ood, sorm surge Neher
ands 1997 hreadbo
ands
de Ausra
a .rsbane f
ood Ausra
a 2007 Uned Kngdom f
oods Uned Kngdom

over 90 81 80 78 73 72 70 70 47 37 19 19 16 11

  É|

›
ood sk Assessmen

1913 1852 1977 1911 1993 1789 2005 1903 1900 1955 1916 1997 1974 2007

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 &pronounced /(t)suÕÚnàÕmi/) is a series of waves created when a body of water, such as an ocean, is rapidly displaced. Earthquakes, mass movements above or below water, some volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions, landslides, underwater earthquakes, large asteroid impacts and detonation of nuclear weapons at sea all have the potential to generate a tsunami. Due to the immense volumes of water and energy involved, the effects of tsunami can be devastating. Since meteorites are small, they will not generate tsunami.

The Greek historian Thucydides was the first to relate tsunami to submarine quakes,[1] [2] but understanding of the nature of tsunami remained slim until the 20th century and is the subject of ongoing research.

Many early geological, geographic, oceanographic etc., texts refer to "Seismic sea waves"Ͷthese are now referred to as "tsunami(s)".

Some meteorological storm conditionsͶdeep depressions causing cyclones, hurricanesͶcan generate a storm surge which can be several metres above normal tide levels. This is due to the low atmospheric pressure within the centre of the depression. As these storm surges come ashore the surge can resemble a tsunami, inundating vast areas of land. These are not tsunami. Such a storm surge inundated Burma (Myanmar) in May 2008.

   he erm sunam comes from he Japanese meanng ú

#"su", $ and ã  #"nam", 0$. [a. Jap. sunam, unam, f. su harbour + nam waves.²c

  ú  
]. ›or he p
ura
, one can eher fo

ow ordnary Eng
sh pracce and add an , or use an nvarab
e p
ura
as n Japanese. sunam are common hroughou Japanese hsory; approxmae
y 195 evens n Japan have been recorded. sunam are somemes referred o as   ã  , a erm ha has fa

en ou of favor, especa

y n he scenfc communy, n recen years because sunam acua

y have nohng o do wh des. he once popu
ar erm derves from her mos common appearance, whch s ha of an exraordnar
y hgh ncomng de. sunam and des boh produce waves of waer ha move n
and, bu n he case of sunam he n
and movemen of waer s much greaer and
ass for a
onger perod, gvng he mpresson of an ncredb
y hgh de. A
hough he meanngs of "da
" nc
ude "resemb
ng"[3] or "havng he form or characer of"[4] he des, and he erm    s no more accurae because sumans are no
med o harbours, use of he erm   ã  s dscouraged by geo
ogss and oceanographers.

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he on
y oher
anguage han Japanese ha has a word for hs dsasrous wave s am

anguage[   

] and he word s "Aa"h Pera
a". Souh Easern coass of Inda have experenced hese waves some 700 years before and was a regu
ar even by ha me as per he sone carvngs #scrpures n sone$ read.

Y



A sunam can be generaed when convergng or desrucve p
ae boundares abrup
y move and verca

y dsp
ace he over
yng waer. I s very un
ke
y ha hey can form a dvergen #consrucve$ or conservave p
ae boundares. hs s because consrucve or conservave boundares do no genera

y dsurb he verca
dsp
acemen of he waer co
umn. Subducon "one re
aed earh%uakes generae he ma4ory of a

sunams. A sunam has a much sma

er amp
ude #wave hegh$ offshore, and a very
ong wave
engh #ofen hundreds of k
omeers
ong$, whch s why hey genera

y pass unnoced a sea, formng on
y a s
gh swe

usua

y abou 300 mm above he norma
sea surface. A sunam can occur a any sae of he de and even a
ow de w

s

nundae coasa
areas f he ncomng waves surge hgh enough. On Apr
1, 1946 a &agnude 7.8 #cher Sca
e$ earh%uake occurred near he A
euan Is
ands, A
aska. I generaed a sunam whch nundaed H
o on he s
and of Hawa' wh a 14 m hgh surge. he area where he earh%uake occurred s where he Pacfc Ocean f
oor s subducng #or beng pushed downwards$ under A
aska. Examp
es of sunam beng generaed a
ocaons away from convergen boundares nc
ude Soregga durng he Neo
hc era, Grand .anks 1929, Papua New Gunea 1998 #appn, 2001$. In he case of he Grand .anks and Papua New Gunea sunams an earh%uake caused sedmens o become unsab
e and subse%uen
y fa
. hese s
umped and as hey f
owed down s
ope a sunam was generaed. hese sunam dd no rave
ransoceanc dsances. I s no known wha caused he Soregga sedmens o fa
. I may have been due o over
oadng of he sedmens causng hem o become unsab
e and hey hen fa
ed so
e
y as a resu
 of beng over
oaded. I s a
so possb
e ha an earh%uake caused he sedmens o become unsab
e and hen fa
. Anoher heory s ha a re
ease of gas hydraes #mehane ec.,$ caused he s
ump. he "Grea h
ean earh%uake" #19:11 hrs U$ &ay 22, 1960 #9.5 ‘w$, he &arch 27, 1964 "Good ›rday earh%uake" A
aska 1964 #9.2 ‘w$, and he "Grea Sumara-Andaman earh%uake" #00:58:53 U$ ÷ecember 26, 2004 #9.2 ‘w$, are recen examp
es of powerfu
megahrus earh%uakes ha generaed a sunam ha was ab
e o cross oceans. Sma

er #4.2 ‘w$ earh%uakes n Japan can rgger sunam ha can devasae nearby coass whn 15 mnues or
ess. In he 1950s  was hypohessed ha
arger sunams han had prevous
y been be
eved possb
e may be caused by
ands
des, exp
osve vo
canc acon e.g., Sanorn, Krakaau, and

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naura
phenomena and f correc, carefu
observaon and monorng cou
d possb
y provde advance warnng of earh%uakes, sunam ec. However, he evdence s conroversa
and has no been proven scenfca

y. here are some unsubsanaed c
ams ha anma
s before he Lsbon %uake were res
ess and moved away from
ow
yng areas o hgher ground. Ye many oher anma
s n he same areas drowned. he phenomenon was a
so noed by meda sources n Sr Lanka n he 2004 Indan Ocean earh%uake.[5][6] I s possb
e ha ceran anma
s #e.g., e
ephans$ may have heard he sounds of he sunam as  approached he coas. he e
ephans reacon was o move away from he approachng nose²n
and. Some humans, on he oher hand, wen o he shore o nvesgae and many drowned as a resu
. I s no possb
e o preven a sunam. However, n some sunam-prone counres some earh%uake engneerng measures have been aken o reduce he damage caused on shore. Japan has mp
emened an exensve programme of bu
dng sunam wa

s of up o 4.5 m #13.5 f$ hgh n fron of popu
aed coasa
areas. Oher
oca
es have bu
 f
oodgaes and channe
s o redrec he waer from ncomng sunam. However, her effecveness has been %uesoned, as sunam ofen surge hgher han he barrers. ›or nsance, he Okushr, Hokkadō sunam whch sruck Okushr Is
and of Hokkadō whn wo o fve mnues of he earh%uake on Ju
y 12, 1993 creaed waves as much as 30 m #100 f$ a

²as hgh as a 10sory bu
dng. he por own of Aonae was comp
ee
y surrounded by a sunam wa

, bu he waves washed rgh over he wa

and desroyed a

he wood-framed srucures n he area. he wa

may have succeeded n s
owng down and moderang he hegh of he sunam, bu  dd no preven ma4or desrucon and
oss of
fe.[7] he effecs of a sunam may be mgaed by naura
facors such as ree cover on he shore
ne. Some
ocaons n he pah of he 2004 Indan Ocean sunam escaped a
mos unscahed as a resu
 of he sunam's energy beng absorbed by rees such as coconu pa
ms and mangroves. In one srkng examp
e, he v

age of Na
uvedapahy n Inda's am
Nadu regon suffered mnma
damage and few deahs as he wave broke up on a fores of 80,244 rees p
aned a
ong he shore
ne n 2002 n a bd o ener he Gunness .ook of ecords.[8] Envronmena
ss have suggesed ree p
anng a
ong sreches of seacoas whch are prone o sunam rsks. I wou
d ake some years for he rees o grow o a usefu
s"e, bu such p
anaons cou
d offer a much cheaper and
onger-
asng means of sunam mgaon han he consrucon of arfca
barrers.

     
  ‘ 
  
   Hsorca

y speakng, sunam are no rare, wh a
eas 25 sunam occurrng n he
as cenury. Of hese, many were recorded n he Asa±Pacfc regon²parcu
ar
y Japan. he .oxng ÷ay sunam n 2004 caused approxmae
y 350,000 deahs and many more n4ures. As ear
y as 426 ... he Greek hsoran hucyddes n%ured n hs book  

ú   
abou he causes of sunam, and argued correc
y ha  cou
d on
y be

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 THE HOME OF TEXT

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exp
aned as a conse%uence of ocean earh%uakes.[1] He was hus he frs n he hsory of naura
scence o corre
ae %uakes and waves n erms of cause and effec:[2] he cause, n my opnon, of hs phenomenon mus be sough n he earh%uake. A he pon where s shock has been he mos vo
en he sea s drven back, and sudden
y reco
ng wh redoub
ed force, causes he nundaon. Whou an earh%uake I do no see how such an accden cou
d happen.[9]

he oman hsoran Ammanus &arce

nus #g    26.10.15-19$ descrbes he ypca
se%uence of a sunam nc
udng an ncpen earh%uake, he sudden rerea of he sea and a fo

owng gganc wave on he occason of he 365 A.÷. sunam devasang A
exandra.[10] [11]