A General Summary Of Organizational Behavior
This document was uploaded by user and they confirmed that they have the permission to share it. If you are author or own the copyright of this book, please report to us by using this DMCA report form. Report DMCA
Overview
Download & View A General Summary Of Organizational Behavior as PDF for free.
More details
- Words: 10,969
- Pages: 41
Organizational Behavior Kerem Koseoglu Bu dökümanda, OB yeterlilik sınavına yönelik çıkartılmış notlar bulunmaktadır.
Yeditepe Üniversitesi
Fall
08
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS Science In General................................................................................................................................................... 6 OB In General .......................................................................................................................................................... 6 OB Basics ............................................................................................................................................................. 6 Basic Business Functions and Principles ............................................................................................................. 6 Approaches of OB ............................................................................................................................................... 6 Historical Development Of OB ............................................................................................................................ 6 Classical Theories (traditional) ........................................................................................................................ 7 Neo Classical Theory ....................................................................................................................................... 7 Modern Theories............................................................................................................................................. 7 Values, Attitudes..................................................................................................................................................... 8 Values.................................................................................................................................................................. 8 Attitudes ............................................................................................................................................................. 8 Job Satisfaction ............................................................................................................................................... 9 Job Involvement.............................................................................................................................................. 9 Organizational Commitment........................................................................................................................... 9 Organizational Citizenship............................................................................................................................... 9 Personality & Emotions........................................................................................................................................... 9 Personality .......................................................................................................................................................... 9 Personality Traits .......................................................................................................................................... 10 Self Esteem.................................................................................................................................................... 10 Person – Job Fit ............................................................................................................................................. 11 Psychological Capital..................................................................................................................................... 11 Emotions ........................................................................................................................................................... 12 Perception & Decision Making.............................................................................................................................. 12 Perception......................................................................................................................................................... 12 Decision Making................................................................................................................................................ 13 Motivation ............................................................................................................................................................ 14
3
Motivation Theories.......................................................................................................................................... 14 Content Theories........................................................................................................................................... 14 Process Theories ........................................................................................................................................... 15 Applications of motivation theories.................................................................................................................. 15 Behavior Modification....................................................................................................................................... 16
Groups................................................................................................................................................................... 16 Roles.................................................................................................................................................................. 17 Group Dynamics................................................................................................................................................ 18 Teams................................................................................................................................................................ 18 Communication..................................................................................................................................................... 19 The Process of Human Communication ............................................................................................................ 19 The Message ..................................................................................................................................................... 20 Listening ............................................................................................................................................................ 21 Leadership............................................................................................................................................................. 21 Leadership Theories .......................................................................................................................................... 22 Trait vs Behavioral Theories .......................................................................................................................... 22 Contingency Theories.................................................................................................................................... 22 Contemporary Theories ................................................................................................................................ 24 LMX Theory ................................................................................................................................................... 24 X – Y Theory .................................................................................................................................................. 25 Management Philosophy .................................................................................................................................. 25 Ancient World ............................................................................................................................................... 25 Calvinism, Protestant Ethic, Max Weber....................................................................................................... 25 Capitalism, Marxism...................................................................................................................................... 25 Christianity .................................................................................................................................................... 25 Culture .......................................................................................................................................................... 26 Ethics............................................................................................................................................................. 26 Contemporary Issues of leadership .................................................................................................................. 26 Trust .............................................................................................................................................................. 26
4
Power & Politics .................................................................................................................................................... 27 Power ................................................................................................................................................................ 27 Politics ............................................................................................................................................................... 28 Conflict & Negotiation .......................................................................................................................................... 28 Conflict .............................................................................................................................................................. 28 Negotiation ....................................................................................................................................................... 30 Organization Structure.......................................................................................................................................... 30 Corporate Governance...................................................................................................................................... 30 Organizational Culture .......................................................................................................................................... 30 Culture in General ............................................................................................................................................. 30 Culture vs Climate ............................................................................................................................................. 31 Culture Theories................................................................................................................................................ 31 Hofstede........................................................................................................................................................ 32 Schein............................................................................................................................................................ 32 Denison ......................................................................................................................................................... 32 Queen............................................................................................................................................................ 32 GLOBE Project ............................................................................................................................................... 33 HR Policies and Practices ...................................................................................................................................... 34 Recruitment ...................................................................................................................................................... 34 Job Analysis & Evaluation.................................................................................................................................. 35 Compansation Systems ..................................................................................................................................... 36 Training & Development ................................................................................................................................... 36 Performance Appraisal...................................................................................................................................... 37 Organizational Change & Stress Management ..................................................................................................... 38 Organizational Change & Development............................................................................................................ 38 Organizational Change .................................................................................................................................. 38 Change Models ............................................................................................................................................. 38 Organizational Development ........................................................................................................................ 39 Stress Management .......................................................................................................................................... 39
5
Learning Organizations ......................................................................................................................................... 40
6
BASICS SCIENCE IN GENERAL Bilimsel bir çalışmada 4 özellik aranır: • • • •
Measurement Repeatability Observability Testability
OB IN GENERAL OB BASICS OB, örgüt içinde insan davranışını inceler. Input (emek + toprak + yatırım + girişim) üretim output vardır. OB, emek ile ilgilenir.
BASIC BUSINESS FUNCTIONS AND PRINCIPLES Basic business functions: • • • • •
Accusation (satınalma): Input’larıtoplar Production Marketing Finance & Accounting Management o Planning o Organizing o Directing o Controlling
Business principles: • • • • • •
Economy (Elimination of waste) Productivity (output / input) Efficienct (our prod. / ideal prod.) Profitability (profit / capital) Effectiveness (extent of reaching business goals) Rationality
APPROACHES OF OB Systems approach (open system), Contingency approach
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF OB
7
CLASSICAL THEORIES (TRADITIONAL) Friedrick Taylor Invented productivity: Max output, minimum cost Founder of scientific management. Before him, methods were transferred from father to son. He brought scientific approach to management. For example, “How heavy should a shovel be?”. Span of control. Bir organizasyon ağacında, her bir pozisyonun altında en fazla 6 pozisyon olmalı, yoksa kontrol azalır ve conflict artar. Specialization. Herkes belli bir işte uzmanlaşıp hep onu yapmalı. Bu fikir departmanları ve job description’ları doğurdu ve ortaya training kavramı çıktı. Motivation. Job satisfaction = High performance so workers should be motivated with money. Training’I ilk kez gündeme getirdi. Conflict’I kaldır dedi. Today, Taylor is being critisized because he evaluates human beings like machines. Because of him, syndicates exist today. Fayol Functions of managers: Planning, organizing, yürütme, koordinasyon, kontrol. Weber Bürokrasi gereklidir. Boreacracy = standardization & rules, no exceptions. Red tape değil. 3 kinds of power – lgeitimacy relations: Traditional (kral güneşin oğlu), Charismatic (üstün özellikler), Legal (bürokrasi). İdeal bürokrasi: Specialization, hierarhical authority, impersonal relationships, strict procedural rules, recruitment on the basis of ability, differentaiation of private and official income, written communication & documentation
NEO CLASSICAL THEORY Hawtorn Studies Bir elektrik firmasında yapılan “İş şartlarını iyileştirirsek performans artar mı?” araştırması sonucunda ortaya çıkmıştır. İki grup çalışanın biri aydınlık, bir karanlık odalarda çalıştırılmıştır; aydınlık grubun daha iyi çalışması bekleniyordu. Ne var ki, sonuçlar öyle olmadı: Karanlık grup daha iyi çalışıyordu. Sonradan; bunun sebebinin, karanlık odadaki araştırma görevlilerinin çalışanlara daha iyi davranması olduğu ortaya çıktı. Bunun sonucunda yeni Leadership fikirleri ortaya çıktı; farklı bir lider modeli: Humanistic management approach. Conclusions: • •
Work is a social activity as well as physical Informal social organization creates its own norms, helps define the status of members and determine behavior, helps fulfill the needs of members for recognition & self esteem & belonging.
Hawtorn Effect: Biri seni izliyorsa başta işini daha iyi yaparsın, sonradan alışıp tekrar yaymaya başlarsın.
MODERN THEORIES
8
(Post)Modern Age Eski çağlarda conflict’in engellenemeyeceği görüşü hakimdi. Group dynamics: İnsanlar grupların parçasıdır dendi ve grup çalışmaları araştırılmaya başlandı. Şimdi ise, yeni yeni yöntemler ve yaklaşımlar var. “Conflict is good, as long as you know how to manage it”. • • • • • •
Total Quality Management Downsizing Delayering Network Organizations Learning Organizations Outsourcing
THE INDIVIDUAL VALUES, ATTITUDES VALUES Values Attitude Behavior Sağlık “Sağlık önemlidir” Spor yapmak (Positive behavior) Namus “Namus önemlidir” Namus cinayeti (Negative behavior) Özgürlük “İsteyen sigara içebilir” Sigara içenlere karışmamak Aile “Ailem sağlıklı olmalıdır” Sigara içen oğluna karışmak Bu gibi durumlarda, Cognitive Dissonance adı verilen çatışmalar ortaya çıkar. İnsan bünyesi, bu gibi çatışmaları çözümlendirip kendi içinde çelişmeme yönünde eğilim gösterir. Çözüm: Change attitude, or change behavior. Çalışanlar arasındaki değer farklılıkları organizasyonun hedeflerine zarar veriyorsa, değiştirilmelidir. Aksi takdirde bırak kalsınlar. Convivence: Living together. Management should know how to live with differences and get +’s out of them. Workforce Diversity: Şirketlerin farklı ırk, din, dilden insanları bir araya toplaması. Self fulfilling prophecy. Bir insana akıllıymış gibi davranırsan bir süre sonra hakikaten akıllıca davranmaya başlar. Aptalmış gibi davranırsan, bir süre sonra aptallaşır. • • • •
Zencilerden çok suçlu çıkması Köpeğe ısıracakmış gibi davranırsan ısırır Elemana tembelmiş gibi davranırsan tembellik yapar (X) Elemana güvenip sorumluluk verirsen sorumlu olur (Y)
ATTITUDES Evaluative statements or judgements concerning objects, people or events
9
Degree of (un)pleasurable feelings toward job. Socio‐Technical Systems: İnsanın adapte olabileceği yapılar kurup, job design içinde participative management’ı yapabiliyor olmalı. Örnek: Volvo, takım kararlarına ödül veriyor.
JOB SATISFACTION Satisfaction performance goes in both ways. Ama bazı çalışmalarda bu ikisi arasında hiçbir bağlantı bulunamadığı da olmuş. Çünkü; Performance = motivation
x
Capacity
x
(ability, training, technology, etc)
Opportunity
x
(loc. educ. Backg, connect., etc)
Environment
(Supervision, culture, etc)
Affects: Productivity (vice versa da olabilir), absenteeism, Turnover
JOB INVOLVEMENT The degree to which a person identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her performance important to self‐worth.
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT Belief in the goal and values of the organization. Results in extra effort and desire to stay in organization. 3 types of commitments (according to Meyer): • • •
Affective. Şirketi aile gibi görmek. Sevgi. Normative. “Şirketim bana çok şey verdi ben de kalıp karşılığını vermeliyim”. Minnet. Continuance. Dışarıda iş yok veya istifa tazminatı var diye kalmak. Korku.
ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP İş sorumlulukları dışında da şirketi desteklemek. Dimensions: • Helping behavior: Başkalarına yardım etmek • Sportsmanship: Kendi istediği olmayınca huysuzlanmamak • Organizational loyalty: Spreading goodwill, defending organizational objectives • Organizational compliance: Kimse bakmıyorken de kurallara uymak • Individual initiative: Volunteering on extra responsibilities and encouraging others to do the same • Civic virtue: Participating actively in fovernance, monitor environment, look best interest • Self development: Kendini isteyerek geliştirmek
PERSONALITY & EMOTIONS PERSONALITY Personality: The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.
10 Why is OB interested in personality? Because Person – Job match is needed. You have to be careful about this when recruiting and promoting someone. Personality is a relatively set of characteristics that define our behaviour. Determined by 2 factor sets: • •
Nature. Heredit specs of us which come by birth. Nurture. Specs which were gained from the environment.
PERSONALITY TRAITS Enduting characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior Machiavelists: The Noble adlı romandan almıştır adını. Mach Type’lar, etraflarındaki insanları amaçları doğrultusunda “Herşey mübahtır” diyerek kullanırlar. İkna kabiliyetleri yüksektir ve iyi pazarlık ederler, politik oyunlarda başarılıdırlar. Self‐Monitoring: Nabza göre şerbet verirler, çevreleri ile uyumludurlar. Big Five: Bu modele göre, 5 kişilik özelliği vardır. • • • • •
Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Emotional stability Openness to experience
• •
Type A is aggressive, struggle to achieve more in less time Type B never suffer from sense of urgency, can relax without guilt
Type A vs Type B
Locus Of Control: İki tür insan vardır. Internalizer, olayları kendisinin idare edebileceğini düşünür. Externalizer, olayların dış faktörler tarafından kontrol edildiğini ve kendisinin pek etki edemediğini düşünür. Internalizer: • • • •
Tasks requiring complex analysis High motivation Piece‐rate workers More freedom from supervision
Mobbing: Organizasyon içi duygusal terör. In a mobbing situation, the ringleader incites supporters, cohorts, copycats and unenlightened, inexperienced, immature or emotionally needy individuals with poor values to engage in adversarial interaction with the selected target. Bullying: Organizasyon içi fiziksel terör. Bullying is persistent unwelcome behaviour, mostly using unwarranted or invalid criticism, nit‐picking, fault‐finding, also exclusion, isolation, being singled out and treated differently, being shouted at, humiliated, excessive monitoring, having verbal and written warnings imposed, and much more. Role conflict: Rol çatışması. Sınıf öğretmeninin öğrencisi olan oğlunu sınıfta bırakamaması. Rol bulaşması: Bir öğretmenin, tanımadığı bir çocuğa sokakta “İn bakayım o duvardan” demesi.
SELF ESTEEM Self Concept kavramının daraltılmış halidir. Self concept, insanın kendisini bir nesne olarak ne kadar değerli bulduğudur. Self esteem ise, kendini ne kadar sevdiği ve kendinden ne kadar memnun olduğuyla ilgilidir.
11
Low Self Esteem’e sahip birine yöneticiler çok dikkatli yaklaşmalıdır. Böyle birine doğrudan eleştiri yaparsan herşeyi kendine yıkıp kendini kötü hissedebilir. Negative Feedback verirken dikkatli, Positive Feedback verirken cömert davranmak gerekir. High Self Esteem’e sahip birine hatasını söyleyince kabul eder ve bunu kendini geliştirmek için bir fırsat olarak kabul eder. Self Esteem’i; Heredity’den ziyade çevre şekillendirir. İnsanlarda Self Esteem’in Low hale gelmesini önlemek için savunma mekanizmaları çalışmaktadır. •
• • • • •
Rationalization: Bir olayı akla uydurmak, genelleştirmek. Bu şekilde suçu kendi üzerine almamak, veya genelleştirmek. Negativism. Patrona kırıp, gizlice bir ofis eşyasını kırmak. Bir nevi intikam. Replacement. Patron sana kızıyor, sen de eşine kızıyorsun, o da çocuğa kızıyor, vs. Withdrawal: Olaydan uzaklaşma. İstifa, kendi içine çekilme gibi yansımaları vardır. Compensation. Terk edilen birinin beste yaparak duygularını ifade etmesi ve rahatlaması. Projection. Kendi zayıf yönünü herkeste görmek.
PERSON – JOB FIT Holland’s typology of personality: • • • • • •
Realistic: Prefers activities that require physical skills. Mechanic, farmer, etc. Investigative: Prefers activities that involves thinking and understanding. Mathematician, reporter, etc. Social: Prefers activities that involve helping others. Social worker, teacher, etc. Conventional: Prefers rule‐regulated activities. Accountant, corporate manager, etc. Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities and opportunities for power. Lawyer, public relations specialist, etc. Artistic: Prefers ambiguous activities that allow creative expression. Painter, musicial, writer, etc.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CAPITAL 1
Psychological capital has its roots in positive psychology (Larson & Luthans, 2006). It is defined as the positive and developmental state of an individual as characterized by four constructs: (Wikipedia, 2008) •
• •
Hope is defined as a positive motivational state where two basic elements interact. These elements are successful feeling of agency (or goal oriented determination) and pathways (or planning to achieve those goals). Self efficacy is defined as people's confidence in their ability to achieve a specific goal in a specific situation. Optimism was defined by Attribution Theory (Manusov & Spitzberg, 2008). An Optimistic person is defined as one that makes internal attributions (West Virginia University, 1996) for positive events and external attributions (West Virginia University, 1996) to negative events. Optimism in Psycap is thought as a realistic construct that regards what an employee can or cannot do, as such, optimism reinforces self efficacy and hope.
1 Also mentioned as Psycap
12
•
Resiliency is a positive way of coping with danger or distress. In organizational aspect, it is defined as an ability to recuperate from stress, conflict, failure, change or increase in responsibility.
To improve psychap in an organization, HRM should work on selection, training and performance evaluation.
EMOTIONS Emotions: Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Moods are efelings that are less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus. Felt vs displayed emotions. Çatışırsa: Emotional dissonance Emotional dimensions: Variety, intensity, frequency & duration External constraings on emotions: Organizational, cultural Affective Events Theory: Theory that employees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work. This influences their job performance and satisfaction. EI (Emotional Intelligence): The ability to detect and manage emotional cues and information. • • • • •
Self awareness: Being aware of what you are feeling. Self management: The ability to manage own emotions and impulses. Self motivation: The ability to persist in the face of failures. Empathy: The ability to sense how others are feeling. Social skills: The ability to handle emotions of others.
OB Applications: Decision making, motivation, leadership, conflict, customer service, deviant workspace behavior
PERCEPTION & DECISION MAKING PERCEPTION Perception: A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning to their environment. Perception Process • • •
Selective Perception Organization Interpretation
Attribution Theory When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused. The determination of whether the cause is internal or external depends on three factors: •
Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations (Robbins, 2005). If the person being observed exhibits the same behavior in a variety of contexts, then distinctiveness is low; if they have different behavior depending on the context, then distinctiveness is high (Simmering, 2006).
13
•
•
If everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behavior show consensus (Robbins, 2005). If the observer sees others acting the same way that the person being perceived acts, then consensus is high. However, if others behave differently in the type of situation, then consensus is low (Simmering, 2006). Consistency describes whether the person being observed behaves the same way when faced with the same set of circumstances. If the person being observed acts the same way in the same type of situation, consistency is high; if they act differently each time, then consistency is low (Simmering, 2006).
Usually; external attribution is caused by high distinctiveness, high consensus and low consistency. On the other hand, internal attribution is caused by low distinctiveness, low consensus and high consistency. Fundamental attribution error: The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgements. Self Serving Bias: The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting blame for failures on external factors. Common Perception Errors • • • • • • •
Stereotyping Halo Effect Primacy Effect Selective Perception Contrast Effect Projection: It is the tendency of attributing one’s own characteristics to other people Self fulfilling prophecy
Applications in OB: interview, performance expectations (self fulfilling prophecy), ethnic profiling, performance evaluation, employee effort.
DECISION MAKING How individuals make decisions and quality of choices are influenced by perceptions. Steps to rational decision making: Define the problem, Identify the decision criteria, Allocate weights to the criteria, Develop the alternatives, Evaluate the alternatives, Select the best alternative Intuitive decision making: An unconscious process created out of distilled experience. Decision problems as person: • • • • • •
Overconfidence bias: İnsanlar %50 haklı olmasına rağmen %70 kararda Confident olur. Anchoring bias: Tendency to fizate on initial information as starting point. Conformation bias: We seek out information that reaffirms our past choices and disciont info that contradicts. Availability bias: Tendency to base judgements on info that is already available Representative bias: Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to match it with a preexisting category Escalation of commitment error: An increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information
14
• •
Randomness error: Decision making becomes impaired when we try to create meaning out of random events Hindsight bias: The tendency to believe falsely that we’d accurately predicted the outcome of an event, after that outcome is known
Decision problems in groups: •
• •
•
Group Polarization Phenomenon: groups are more extreme in decisions. Çünkügrupiçindekilerbirbirinidestekleyipgazagelebilir. Meselagençgruplarıbiraradasaçmakararlarverebilir. Groupthink: Grup olarak karar veriyorolmakbazençokkötükararlarayolaçar. Şudurumdaortayaçıkar: Grupkendiiçindebütün, karşıtgörüşhiçyok. Persuasive Arguments Theory: Before meeting in a group, members of the group will develop arguments to support their positions. To sway others, the arguments will tend to be more extreme. In the end, one argument will win and the group will find itself supporting an extreme decision. Risky Shift Phenomenon: groups take either more or less extreme risks. Grupiçindealınan risk üyelerarasındabölünüyorgibigözüktüğüiçin, tekbaşınaalacağındandahaçok risk alırsın 2
OB Implications : Performance evaluation, reward systems, formal regulations, system‐imposed time constraints, historical precendents
MOTIVATION Need Drive Behavior Incentive Satisfaction Need … Motivasyon = willingness x ability.
MOTIVATION THEORIES Motivation: The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. İki tür teori var: Content (needs) ve Process. Bu teorilerde Reward önemli bir yer tutar. Intrinsic Reward: İçsel ödül. Uzun vadelidir. Motivators of Hereberg / higher levels of Maslow. Extrinsic Reward: Dışsal ödül. Kısa vadelidir. Routine / Piece rate Task’lerde işe yarar.
CONTENT THEORIES Maslow: İhtiyaç piramidi. Fizyolojik Security Social Esteem Self actualization. Üst seviyedeki bir Need’de başarısız olursan bir alt seviyeye düşebilirsin. Eleştiri: Çin’de sosyal ihtiyaçlar fizyolojik ihtiyaçların bile önünde. Bu sayılar hep aynı değildir ve yer bile değiştirebilir. APA: (McClelland) 3 tür ihtiyaç vardır: Power, Affiliation, Achievement. ERG: Aldorfer ortaya attı. 3 tür ihtiyaç vardır: Existence, Relatedness, Growth. Bu Maslow’unkini temel almıştır; ama farklı ihtiyaçlar paralel bir şekilde doyurulmaya çalışılabilir demektedir. XY: (McGregor) XY tipi liderlik.
2 Bunlar Decision Making’I etkileyen şeyler
15
Two Factors Theory: Herzberg ortaya attı. Dissatisfaction ve Satisfaction’u birbirinden ayırdı. Job Content: No Satisfaction Satisfaction yaratabilir (Motivators). Job Context: Dissatisfaction No Satisfaction yaratabilir (Hygene Factors). Eleştiri: Her kültürde farklı olabilir; bir kültürde Motivator olan bir diğer kültürde Hygene olabilir. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.
PROCESS THEORIES İnsanların düşünebildiğini ve belli bir şekilde motive olup olmamaya kendilerinin karar verdiğini savunur. Expectancy Theory: Beklenti teorisi. Motivation = Valance x expectancy. Expectancy: “If I show effect, will I be able to perform?” Valence: “Reward bana ne ifade ediyor?” Valence Needs Goal Setting Theory: Elemanları serbest bırakıp “Çalışabildiğin kadar çalış” demek yerine belli hedefler koymak daha iyi sonuç verir. Ancak; Hedefler ulaşılabilir olmak zorunda. Goal çok yüksek olursa, ona ulaşmak için kaliteyi düşürebilir eleman. Fazla yüksek Goal, isteği ortadan kaldırır. Çalışanlara sonuçlarla ilgili Feedback vereceksin Hedefleri koyarken çalışanlarla birlikte karar vereceksin. “Söz verdim, yapmalıyım” diye düşünür o zaman. Equity Theory: İnsan, Input ve Output’larını başkalarıyla karşılaştırır sürekli. Eğer denge yoksa, kişi dengeyi sağlamaya çalışır. Eğer kendi Output’unu yüksek bulursa (Overcompansated), Input’larını arttırmaya çalışır. “Benim maaşım fazla yüksek” diyen birinin daha çok çalışması gibi. Eğer kendi Output’unu düşük bulursa (Undercompansated), Input’larını azaltmaya çalışır. “Benim maaşım çok düşük, bu kadar maaşa bu kadar iş” diyen birinin işi azaltması gibi. Consistency Theory: Self‐fulfilling prophecy. Job Design Theory: Job Characteristics Model • • • • •
Skill variety: işi tamamlamak için ne kadar çeşitli aktivite gerekiyor Task Identity: Tam ve tanımlanabilir bir işi tek başına mı yapıyor Task significance: Diğer insanların hayatına ne kadar değer katıyor Autonomy: Zamanlama & plan yapmak konusunda ne kadar özgür? Feedback: Performansı hakkında ne kadar cevap alıyor?
APPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION THEORIES Management By Objectives: Goal Setting Theory’nin organizasyon içindeki uygulamasıdır. Individual Goal Department Goal Division Goal Organizational Goal şeklinde farklı hedefler vardır ve bu hedeflerin hepsi birden göz önünde bulundurulmalıdır. Ama pratikte hep böyle olmaz (Örnek: Satış – üretim çatışması). Goals should be specific. “Masrafları kısacağız” değil, “Herkes masrafını %7 kıssın” gibi. Employee Recognition Programs: Reinforcement Theory’nin uygulamasıdır. Employee of the month gibi. Employee Involvement Programs: İnsanları sürece dahil edip karar ve önerilerde onlardan da faydalanmak. İnsanları çok motive eder çünkü kendini firmaya ait hisseder. Özellikle Stock Option; Flexible Benefits. Job Redesign and Scheduling Programs
16
• • • • •
Job Rotation: Birinin başka departman / görevlere kaydırılması. Job Enlargement: Bir sorumluluğu varken, (muhtemelen aynı seviyede) 3‐4 işi daha oluyor. Başta motive eder, orta vadede etkisi zayıf. Job Enrichment: Bir işin farklı boyutlarını da kapsamaya başlıyor kişi. Mesela verdiğin dersin planlamasının da sana verilmesi. Bir nevi Empowerment. Flextime Job Sharing
Empowerment: İşiyle ilgili sorumluluk veriyorsun. Mesela Migros’taki manav, sebze reyonunun indirimlerini kendi ayarlayabiliyor. Eleştiri: Esas amacı gerçek güç vermek yerine daha çok çalıştırmak. Ama araştırmalarda Employee Engagement ve Well Being’I sağladığı ortaya çıkmış.
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Reinforcement Theory: Pekiştirme teorisi. Davranışın sonucuna göre tekrarlatıl(ma)masına dayanır. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov. Otomatik öğrenme var. Operant Conditioning: Sonucu gözlemleyip kendin karar verme. Bilinçli öğrenme var. Stimulus Organizm Outcome. Social Conditioning: Başkasının sonucuna bakarak öğrenme. Davranış modifikasyonunda 3 temel yöntem vardır: Positive reinforcement. İstenen davranış ödüllendirilir. Negative reinforcement. İstenmeyen davranış, ceza ile korkutulur. Punishment. Ceza verilir. Yan etkisi çoktur, mümkünse uygulama. Schedules of reinforcement: Continuous. Davranış her tekrarlandığında ödül verilir. Davranış yeni öğreniliyorken işe yarar. Kısa vadelidir. Intermittent. Ara sıra ödül verilir. Öğrenilmiş davranışın sürekliliğini sağlamak için işe yarar. Uzun vadelidir. Ratio Based. Davranışı tekrarlama sayısına göre işler. Fix Ratio. Belli sayıda davranış ödüllendirilir. Piece‐rate gibi. Variable Ratio. Belirsiz sayıda davranış ödüllendirilir. Slot makinasi veya balıkçı gibi. Interval Based. Süreye göre işler. Fix Interval. Belli sürede ödül verilir. Aylık maaş gibi. Variable Interval. Belirsiz sürede ödül verilir. Pop‐Quiz gibi.
THE GROUP GROUPS GROUP: A collection of individuals who have interaction with one another toward some common goal or purpose. They have some common bands that tend to develop from common like, dislike, interest and goal. Formal Work Groups. Üst‐ast ilişkisinin geçerli olduğu gruplar. Standart işyeri grupları; departmanlar gibi.
17
Ad‐Hoc Work Groups. People throughout the organization who have an interest or a topic or problem forms task forces or comities to make recommendations or take action as ad hoc work group. Informal Work Groups. Based on friendship and common interest or location. Friendship cliques.
Cohesiveness
Grupa bağlılık.
Group Norms + Cohesiveness iyidir Group Norms ‐ Cohesiveness kötüdür 3 Group Think Cohesiveness kötüdür Stages Of Groups Forming. Kişilerin meseleye ısınması, “Gruba girsem mi girmesem mi?” gibi soruları sorması. Statü & güç değerlendirmeleri yapılır, kimin nasıl biri olduğu araştırılır. Storming. Kim lider? Kim ne yapacak? Roller & işler nasıl dağıtılacak? Norming. Statüler ve normlar oturur. Performing. İş aktif ve düzenli bir biçimde yapılmaya başlanır. En verimli aşamadır. Adjourning. Group yapısı dağılır / değişir.
ROLES A role is a set of expectations believed by the individual or the group to be associated with a person who occupies a given position in the group or organization. Task Roles Initiator (Contributor). Sorunu ortaya atan, veya ilk adımı atan. Information Seeker. Araştırmacı. Seeking facts, searching for data, researching sources, asking experts for clarification. Information Giver. Offering authoritative facts or relevant experience providing examples, and help the group to understand issues by interpreting ideas, defining terms and clairifying the issues. Evaluator. Devils advocate. Questioning the practicarity, logic or procedures. Summarizer. Putting together everything, checking group by proposing alternatives. Maintenance Roles Harmonizer. Üyeler arasında farklılıkları ve gerilimi azaltır. Encourager. Praising and providing encouragement to other group members. Gate Keeper. Sessiz oturanlara “Senin fikrin ne?” diye sorar. Blocking Roles Dominator. Otorite veya büyük gözükme yoluyla grubu kontrol etmeye çalışır. Blocker. İnatla ve mantıksız bir şekilde grupla ters düşer, genelde kişisel sebepleri vardır. Aggressor. Taktiklerle başkalarının önerilerini kabul etmediğini ortaya koyar. Disruptor. Grubun hedeflerine sahip değildir ve genelde ilgisiz & alaycı bir tavır ortaya koyar. 3 Bir grubun Extreme kararlar verip “Evet en iyisi budur” diye birlik içinde olması. Bu esnada, “Ama şu açıdan da düşünmek lazım” deyip bu kararı bastırmak isteyebilecek küçük Subgroup’lar bastırılır.
18
GROUP DYNAMICS The Pressure To Conform • • • • • • • •
Social Norms: groups have rules that must be followed. Epistemological Weighting Hypothesis: Grupisteklerine / kendiisteklerine ne kadarönemverdiğin, grupnormlarına ne kadaruyduğunubelirler Group Locomotion Hypothesis: Kendi isteklerin yerine grup isteklerini koyarsın. Normative Social Influence: basic group need forces us to conform. Collectivistlerde daha yaygın. Örnek: moda Politeness Theory: Positive face: when others approve of us (Boss’akarşı), negative face: when we feel others cant constrain us (şirketteyenibaşlayanbirinekarşı). Roles: Topluluktaki herkesin rolü vardır. İnsanlar oynadıkları rolü fazlasıyla sahiplenebilir ve kendi değerlerini unutabilir. Örnek: sahte elektro şok, guard & prisoner. Social Impact Theory: conformance increases with importance, immediacy (yakınlık time & space) and number of others. Pluralistic Ignorance: sometimes most people disagree with a group norm, but nobody speaks out.
In‐Group vs Out‐Group • • • • •
In‐Group Bias: we give group members preferential treatment. Hostile Media Phenomenon: opposed groups see neutral people as biased. (hakemleri o yüzden kimse sevmez) Linguistic Inter‐group Bias: Varying abstraction in communication. Grup içi iyi & grup dışı kötü davranışlar, grup içi kötü & grup dışı iyi davranışlardan daha çok konuşulur. Minority Influence: groups tolerate minorities, who should stick together. Out‐Group Homogeneity: seeing non‐group people as 'all the same'.
Decision Making (bkz: Decision Making) Other Group Behavior • • • • •
Deindividuation: losing our sense of self in the crowd. (örnek: riots, yağma) Group Attribution Error: Grubun verdiği karar, gruptaki herkesin bireysel kararı olmayabilir. Bu, gruptaki insanları aslında olmadıkları kadar benzer sanmamıza yol açabilir. Minimum Group Theory: when in any group, people use group behavior. Önemsiz gruplara üye hissederse de önemli gruplardaki gibi gruba uyar. Leader‐Member Exchange Theory: leaders and members create sözsüz agreements. (birazdan geliyor) Social Loafing
TEAMS Team: A group whose individual effort results in a performance that is greater than the sum of individual inputs. Types of Teams: Problem solving, self‐managed work teams, cross‐functional teams, virtual teams To build good teams: • • •
Contextual factors (resources, performance eval, vs) Composition (abilities, personality, diversity, size, etc) Work design (autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance, etc)
19
•
Process (common purpose, specific goals, team efficacy, etc)
COMMUNICATION THE PROCESS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION Model of Human Communication Communication: “Process of creating meaning” SENDER MESSAGE CHANNEL NOISE RECEIVER Message types: •
•
Verbal o Intentional o Unintentional Non‐Verbal o Intentional o Unintentional
Noise types: •
Semantic (when the receiver does not attribute the same meaning to the signal that the sender does) o Physical o Psychological o Cultural
Communication Contexts: Interpersonal, Intercultural, Interviewing, Small‐Group, Public, Organizational, Mass Goals of communication • • • • •
Understanding: “Accurate reception of the content of the intended stimulus” Pleasure Attitude Influence (Coke Zero) Improved Relationships Action
Channels Of Communication Formal Downward. Üstten asta. Job instructions, procedures, rules, feedback, vision, etc. Upward. Asttan üste. Horizontal. Aynı seviyede iletişim. Diagonal. Hierarşik yapının değişik bölgeleri arasında iletişim. Informal MBWA. Management By Wandering Around. Çok sık yapmamak lazım. Site’da az olmalı, yemekhanede filan yapılabilir. Open Door Policy. Çalışanlar istediği zaman istediği müdüre gelip konuşabilir. Kendi müdürünü atlayıp direkt genel müdüre giden bir işçinin cezalandırılmayacağı garanti edilmelidir. Grapevine. Rumor. Çok hızlıdır, %70‐90’ı işle ilgilidir, ve dolaşan lafların %70‐90’ı doğrudur. Akıllı bir yönetici bu yöntemi kullanarak nabız yoklayabilir. Non‐Verbal Communication. Sözsüz iletişimdir – beden dili. İletişimin %90’ını bu oluşturur. Mesela birşeyi beğenirsen Pupils büyür. Stresli vücut küçülür, rahat vücut genişler, vs.
20 Verbal Communication • • •
Symbols & referants Denotaion / connotation Euphimism (memory garden)
THE MESSAGE Verbal Message Words and Meaning • • •
Symbols, Referants (Word, Object) Denotation, Connotation (Main meaning, alternative meaning) Private Meaning (personal), Shared Meaning (shared), Overlapping codes / Codeswitching (member of minority starts to talk different inbetween members)
Language and Thought • •
Sapir‐Whorf Hypothesis: “The world is perceived differently by members of different communities and this perception is transmitted and sustained by language”. Language Problems o Abstract language (don’t stay out late) o Inferences (conclusion derived from evidence or assumptions – when i sit, chair will carry me / she is thinking about her upcoming date this weekend) o Dichtomies: “brilliany”, “stupid”, “winner”, “loser”. Using extreme words to label. o Euphemisms: “Passed away”, “Memory garden” o Equivocal language: One word means many things (peace, truth, drink, freedom)
The Nonverbal Message Interaction with verbal messages: Replacement, Reinforcement, Contradiction Spatial and Temporal Cues Space • •
Personal Interpersonal o Intimate Distance o Personal Distance o Social Distance o Public Distance
High‐Low Contact Orientation Time: Monochronemic vs Polichronemic Visual Clues: Facial Expression, Oculesics (eye contact & behavior), Body Movements, Hand Gestures, Physical Appearance & Use Of Objects
21
Vocal Clues: Volume, Rate & Fluency, Pitch, Quality
LISTENING What is meant by listening? • • • •
Hearing Attention (like paying attention) Understanding Remembering
Types of Listening • • •
•
Pleasurable Listening Discriminative Listening (matematikdersinidinlergibi) Critical Listening (when we need to make a choice) o Analogy o Example o Statistics o Testimony / Quatations Empathic Listening
LEADERSHIP Leadership: the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals. Management: Implementing the vision and the strategy provided by leaders, coordinating and staffing the organization, and handling the day‐to‐day problems. Management skills: technical, human, conceptual (analiz)
ETHICAL LEADERSHIP Diverse perspectives on ethical leadership: • • •
Burns: Increasing awareness about ethical issues is a primary role of leadership. Heifetz: Authority is not needed for ethical leadership. Non‐authority people can emerge for ethical leadership. Greenleaf: “Servant leadership”. Service to followers is the essence of ethical leadership. Servant leader should stand for what is good and right, even if it’s financially not good.
Criteria for evaluating ethical leadership Criteria Use of power Handling diverse interests of multiple stakeholders Development of a vision Integrity of leader behavior Risk taking
Ethical To serve followers Balance and integrate them
Unethical To satisfy personal needs Favors partners who offer the most personal gain Vision that builds on follower input Attempts to sell a personal vision about their needs, values and ideas as the only way to succeed Acts consistent with espoused Does what is expedient for values attaining personal objectives Willing to take personal risks to Avoids decisions involving personal accomplish mission risk
22
Communication
Response to criticsm Development of follower skills
Makes disclosure of relevant info about events, problems and actions Encourages critical evaluation Coaching, mentoring, training to develop followers
Uses deception to bias follower perception Discourages criticism Keeps followers weak and dependent to the leader
LEADERSHIP THEORIES TRAIT VS BEHAVIORAL THEORIES Trait Theories: Theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders.That is, leaders are born rather than made. Most traits can be grouped under big five. Eleştiri: Kültüre bağlı olarak değişebilir; teoriye uymayan başarılı liderler var, durumsallığı hesaba katmıyor. Behavioral Theories: If there are specific behaviors that identified leaders, then leadership can be taught. Eleştiri: Durumsallık yok. Which behaviors? • • •
•
Iowa Studies: Authoritarian vs Democratic vs Laissez Fair. Vast majority preferred democratic. 4 5 Ohio Studies: Two dimensions: Consideration & Initiating Structure . First study to point out and emphasize task & human dimensions. But; validity & focus has been criticized. Michigan Studies: Two dimensions: Employee‐oriented and Production‐oriented. Result: Supervisors of high‐productive groups are employee‐oriented; supervisors of low‐productive groups are production‐oriented. Managerial Grid: Blake & Mouton. Liderler iş / insane ilişkisi Grid’inde bir yerlerdedir.
CONTINGENCY THEORIES “It depends” LPC – Least Preferred Coworker Contingency (Fiedler): Şirkette en azsevdiğiçalışanı belli olumlu (yardımsever, arkadaşcanlısı, vs) veolumsuz (bencil, soğuk, vs) kriterlerbazındapuanlar. High LPC biryöneticigeneldeolumlu, Low LPC iseolumsuzpuanverecektir.High LPC’ler people‐oriented, Low’larise task‐oriented olacaktır. Situation’lar, favorable veya unfavorable olabilir. Leader – Mentor Relation Task Structure Position Power
Good, Poor Structured, Unstructured Strong, Weak
4 The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’ ideas and regard for their feelings 5 The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his/her role and those of subordinates in the search for goal attainment
23
Favorable ve Unfavorable Situation’larda Task Oriented yöneticiler iyi iş yapar. Moderate Situation’larda ise People Oriented yöneticiler iyi iş yapar. You should match the situation to the leader or match the leader to the situation. Eleştiri: İnsanları Task / People Oriented diye bu kadar kesin ayıramazsın. Path‐Goal Theory: Leaders clarify the path, remove roadblocks, and increase rewards. Styles: • • • •
Supportive: Considering the needs of the follower, showing concern for their welfare. Best when the work is stressful, boring or hazardous. Directive: Telling followers what needs to be done and giving appropriate guidance along the way. This may be used when the task is unstructured and complex and the follower is inexperienced. Participative: Consulting with followers and taking their ideas into account when making decisions. Best when the followers are expert. Achievement‐Oriented: Setting challenging goals, both in work and in self‐improvement. This approach is best when the task is complex.
Leadership Substitutes Theory: Herzamanliderlazımdiyebirşeyyok. Şudurumdalideregerekolmayabilir: • • •
Follower characteristics: Expertise, Self‐driven Task characteristics: Predictable, Feedback from task, Satisfying task 6 Organizational characteristics: Cohesive team, Formal organization, Distributed team
Hersey & Blanchart: Maturity Level – astların o yönetim biçimine ne kadar hazır olduğu. • • • •
Unable + Unwilling Telling Able + Unwilling Participating Unable + Willing Selling (eğitimci gibi) Able + Willing Delegating
6 Birlikte iyi çalışabiliyorlarsa
24
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES İyi bir lider, ikisi de olabilmelidir. Charismatic Leadership: Vizyonu var, ve iyi bir hatip. Followers make attributions of heroic leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors. Key characteristics: • • • • •
Vision and articulation Personal risk Environmental sensitivity Sensitivity to follower needs Unconventional behavior
Most experts believe that individuals can be trained to exhibit charismatic behaviors. But there is also a dark side of charisma (Hitler). Theories of charismatic leadership: • •
Attribution Theory: Charisma is attributional.Follower attribution of charismatic qualities to a leader is jointly determined by the leader’s behavior, skill, and aspects of the situation. Self‐Concept Theory: Charisma is observable process, rather than folklore and mystique.
Transformational Leadership: Değişim, gelişim, dönüştürücü lider. Charisma, inspiration, intellectual simulation, individual consideration. Charismatic’I kapsar bu, üzerine ilave eder. Idealized influence, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation. Steps: • • • • • • •
Articulate a clear and appaealing vision Explain how the vision can be attained Act confidently and optimistically Express confidence in followers Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasize key values Lead by example Empower people to achieve the vision 7
Transactional Leadership: İş bitirici lider. Reward, management by active exception , management by passive 8 9 exception , laissez‐faire .
LMX THEORY Leaders in groups maintain their positions through a series of tacit exchange agreements. Liderlerinyakınçevresindekiinsanlar (asistan, danışman, vs) ileözelbirilişkisivardır.Onlaradahafazlasorumluluk, görev, kaynak, vsverirler.Bu grup, özelstatülerisebebiyledahaçokçalışarakbedelöder.Lidere tam sadakatbeklenir. Dış çemberise, dahaazyetkiyevssahipolur, dahaönemsizdir. Lider de, içgrubunfazlapalazlanıpyerinialmamasıiçindikkatliolur. The LMX Process: •
Role taking: Birigrubayenikatıldığında; lider, onlarınyeteneklerinideğerlendirir. Zamaniçerisinde, yetenekleriniispatlayabilecekleriyenifırsatlarverebilir. İkitarafda, nasıldavranılmakistediğini belli eder
7 İstisna olunca müdahele ediyor 8 İstisna olunca müdahele etmiyor, standartlar yakalanamazsa müdahele ediyor 9 Çalışanlara hiç karışmaz
25
• •
Role making: Bu aşamada, liderile her birarasındasözsüzanlaşmalaroturur. Dedication & loyalty karşılığında benefit & power verilir. Lideringüveninikıranbiridışgrubaitilebilir. Routinization: leader & members arasındakisosyalalışverişinmotifleriotururvebelirginleşir.
Success factors: • • • •
Similiarity to leader Seeing viewpoint of leader Better when job challenge extreme (low or high) 10 Onwards & upwards
X – Y THEORY X tipindeki liderler, Taylor tipindedir. İnsanların default olarak tembel ve sorumluluk almayan kişiliğe sahip olduklarını düşünürler; insanlar, ancak external force ile çalıştırılabilir. Y tipindeki liderler, insanların aslında tembel değil, sorumluluk almak isteyen varlıklar olduğunu ve insanları tembelleştiren şeyin sistem olduğunu savunur. İnsan davranışını hem dış, hem iç güçler etkiler.
MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHY ANCIENT WORLD • • • • •
Egyptians (~2000 B.C.) experimented with decentralized government and a form of participatory management Babylonians (~1800 B.C.) Hammurabi’s Code made supervisor responsible for worker Chinese (~1100 B.C.) ‐ Confucius and SunTzu (1st military text), system of grading workers into classes Greeks (~400 B.C.) ‐ Participatory management; invented job rotation, division of labor, generic vs. distinct management, invented the staff principle Romans (~200 B.C.) ‐ Diocletian system of central control, created job descriptions
CALVINISM, PROTESTANT ETHIC, MAX WEBER • •
Calvinism: God chooses some to be saved and others have absolutely no opportunity for salvation Max Weber: Religion Economy. Calvinism influenced large numbers of people to engage in work in the secular world, developing their own enterprises and engaging in trade. Protestant ethic: Unplanned force behind movement that lead to capitalism. o Authority: Rational‐Legal, Traditional, Charismatic o Bureaucracy (not red tape)
CAPITALISM, MARXISM • •
Capitalism found by Karl Marx. Land and capital privately owned. Buyers & sellers. Consumers free to spend income. Adam Smith: “Wealth of Nations”. Free market looks chaotic, but is led by an invisible hand.
CHRISTIANITY 10 Lider de (mesela) şirket sahibinin inner circle’ında ise; bu, liderin inner circle’ındaki insanlara da yansır. En alt seviyedeki biri, böyle bir zincir sayesinde muazzam güçlü olabilir.
26
• •
11
12
13
14
Christian Philosophy: Management functions , Management skills , Conceptual skills , Ethics Christian Community: Rituals in Church
CULTURE Managers have to learn about cultural differences. Managerial practices should be differentiated with respect to the cultures.
ETHICS Theories • •
•
•
Cognitivism (objective moral truths) vs Non‐cognitivism (subjective moral truths) Teleological (get to good result at any cost) o Ethical Egoism: Selfish acts o Utilitarianism: Act to maximize good of the majority o Machiavellianism: Do everything to get the job done Deontological (get to good result, but not at any cost) o Kant: Good will o Locke: Inborn natural rights Ground for any ethical decision Virtue Ethics: “Nasıl bir insan olmalıyız, ne çeşit Virtue’larımız olmalı?” (courage, yardımsever, vs)
Impacts: HR’sequiality of opportunity, Marketing’s advertising, Management’s whistle blowing, trade secrets, workplace privacy, social responsibility Corporate Social Responsibility (Corporate Citizenship) CSR Drivers: Societal, Employee, Shareholder, Consumer expectations CSR: that the corporation has not only economic and legal obligations, but also certain responsibilities to society that extend beyond these obligations. considers the impact of the company’s actions on society. Carroll’s Four Part Definition: Eonomic (be profitable), Legal (obey laws), Ethical (do what is right), Discretionary (be a good corporate citizen) Organizational Justice • • • •
Distributive Justice: Kaynak dağıtımının adaleti. Mesela maaş. Procedural Justice: Yöntemin adil olup olmadığı. “3 ev satana 10.000 YTL” diyorsun ama bir bölge çok zor olabilir. Relational Justice: Supervisor’lar nasıl davranıyor? Kayırma var mı? Informational Justice: Şirkette olup bitenlerden herkesin adil bir şekilde haberi var mı?
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF LEADERSHIP TRUST 11 Planning, Organizing (span of control), Leading, Controlling (benchmark – başkasıyla kıyasla) 12 Technical (iyi olan yönetsin), Human (conflict), Conceptional 13 Analysis, look for alternatives, 14 İşçi (show they can be trusted), işveren (tam para ver),
27
Trust: a positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically. Types of trust: • • •
Deterrence based: Trust based on fear of reprisal if the trust is violated Knowledge based trust: Trust based on behavioral predictability that comes from history Identification based trust: Trust based on a mutual understanding of each others intentions 15
16
Care and concern: Passive concern vs active concern Reliability: Do what you say. Sözlerini tut. Honesty: Tell the whole truth. Creating trust in organizations: Values and culture, interdependence, role & process clarity, goal congruity, visibility, consequences of transgression
POWER & POLITICS POWER Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. •
Sources of Power • Formal Power: It is based on an individual’s position in an organization. o Coercive Power: Coercive power is the power that comes from a person’s authority to punish. o Reward Power: This is the opposite of coercive power. This type of power is based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable (Robbins, 2005). This power is obvious but also ineffective if abused. o Legitimate Power: This is the authority delegated to the holder of the position (Wikipedia, 2008). o Information Power: Information power comes as a result of possessing knowledge that others need or want. This power type also extends to the ability to get information not presently held such as a case with a librarian or data base manager (Petress). • Personal Power: It is based on an individual’s unique characteristics rather than a formal base. o Expert Power: It is an individual's power deriving from the skills or expertise of the person and the organization's needs for those skills and expertise (Wikipedia, 2008). o Referent Power: It is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. It develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person (Robbins, 2005). o Charismatic Power: The sociologist Max Weber defined charismatic authority as "resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him" (Wikipedia, 2008). Power based upon charisma is an extension of referent power stemming from an individual’s personality and interpersonal style (Robbins, 2005). • Scope of Power: Üzerinde etkili olabileceğin insane sayısı.
15 doing no harm 16 preventing harm in general (from other sources)
28
•
Field of Power: Hangi alanda etkili olabileceğin. Mesela OB hocası “sunum hazırla” derse yaparsın, ama “gece uyuma” derse yapmazsın.
Sustaining power will require the audience to be dependent on the power holder: • • •
Importance: As long as the source of power is important to the others, the power will be sustainable. Scarcity: As long as the source of power is scarce, the power will be sustainable. Nonsubstitutability: The less substituted the source of power has, the more sustainable the power will be. Less substitutable sources of power will relate to a higher level of power.
POLITICS Politics: Power in action Political behavior: Activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. Legitimate political behavior vs Illegitimate political behavior Perception of organizational politics: decreased satisfaction, increased stress, increased turnover, reduced performance Defenses: avoiding action, avoiding blame, avoiding change. Impression management: The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them. Conformity (ona uymak), excuses (bahane uydurmak), apologies (özür dilemek), self‐promotion (kendini övmek), flattery (karşındakini övmek), favors (karşındakine iyilik yapmak), association (biz onunla aynı okuldanız)
CONFLICT & NEGOTIATION CONFLICT Disagreement. İki farklı kişi / grup arasındaki amaç / fikir ayrılığı. Old: Conflict is bad and must be avoided Modern : Conflict is inevitable Postmodern
: Conflict is good if you can manage nature and amount of conflict.
Natures of Conflict Task conflict. Generally good. Relationship conflict. Generally bad. Task Relationship conflict arasında genelde pozitif korelasyon vardır, o yüzden dikkat etmek gerekir. İkisinin arasında Moderating Variables da vardır; Trust, Communication, Conflict Style (win‐win) gibi. Amount Of Conflict Conflict ne çok az, ne de çok fazla olmalıdır. Az conflict, grubu tekdüzeliğe ve durağanlığa iter; Group Think’e bile yol açabilir. Çok Conflict ise, yönetilmesi zor bir duruma götürür.
29
Conflict Management Related with communication closely. Levels of conflict Intrapersonel. Kişinin kendi içinde olur ve çözülmesi zordur. Cognitive Dissonance. Approach conflict. İki pozitif seçenek arasında karar verme güçlüğü. Avoidence conflict. İki negatif seçenek arasında karar verme güçlüğü. Approach – avoidence conflict. Hem pozitif, hem negatif öğeler barındıran iki seçenek arasında karar verme güçlüğü. (Rejim yapan birinin “Şu keki yesem mi” demesi). Interpersonel. İki kişi arasında. Intragroup. Grup içinde. Intergroup. İki grup arasında. İnsanların gruba olan bağlılığını arttırır. Interorganizational. İki organizasyon arasında. Pepsi – Coca Cola arasındaki promosyon savaşı gibi. Lowering conflict levels
Avoiding. Turtle Style. Herşeyi önlersin, Lose – Lose olur. Durum önemli değilse, veya hedefe ulaşılamıyorsa kullanılır. Karşı tarafı sakinleştirmek için geçici bir süre de uygulanabilir. Acommodation. Teddy Bear Style. “Senin dediğin olsun”. Haklı olmadığını anlarsan uygulanır; Harmony & Peace isteyen biri de uygulayabilir. Bir dahaki sefer için seni güçlü kılacaktır. Competing (Forcing). Shark Style. “Benim dediğim olsun”. I win – you lose. Çabuk karar gereken 17 durumlarda uygulanabilir. Amygdala insanı buna iter. Compromising. Fox Style. No lose, no win. Orta noktada buluşulur. Full utilization olmaz, iki taraf da biraz kazanıp biraz kaybeder. Collabration. Owl Style. Win – win. En iyi alternatiftir, ama uygulayabilmek için tarafların taleplerinin değil, daha derindeki Need’lerinin anlaşılması gerekir. Competition Aggression insan genlerinde vardır, bu yüzden Competition olur. Social programming de Competition’u körükler; yani doğduğumuzdan beri hep Competition’a itiliyoruz. Competition, genelde I Win – You Lose şeklinde yapılır. Sonuçları; Win – win. İki taraf da kazanır. Paylaşılan pasta büyür. Awareness, creativity, willingness gerektirir. 17 Hayvansal, saldırgan beyin. Bunu üst beynin (Rational) idare etmesi beklenir.
30 Lose – lose. İki taraf da kaybeder. Paylaşılmak istenen pasta küçülür. Win – Lose. Biri kazanıp biri kaybeder, pasta boyutu değişmez. Corporation + Competition = Coopetition. Transactional Analysis: Parent – Adult – Child ilişkisi karşılıklı olarak.
NEGOTIATION Negotiation olabilmesi için: • • •
Conflict Interdependency Utility (anlaştıktan sonra sonuçlar)
Negotiation’da güçlü olmak için BATNA’nı bilmen gerekir
THE ORGANIZATION SYSTEM ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE Organizational structure: How job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated. • • • • • •
Works specializaition: To what degree are activities subdivided into separate jobs? Departmentalization: On what basis will jobs be grouped together? Chain of command: To whom do individuals and groups report? Span of control: How many individuals can a manager efficiently direct? (De)centralization: Where does decision‐making authority lie? Formalization: To what degree will there be rules and regulations to direct employees and managers
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE Deciding how corporations ought to be governed involves some answer to the question, “In whose interests should corporations be run?” •
• •
Property Rights Theory: views the corporation as a private entity. shareholders, as owners of the corporation, have a right that it be operated solely in their interests. It is argued that shareholders were no longer owners in any meaningful sense. Social Institution Theory: regards the corporation as a public entity, in which the state grants individuals the right to do business in the corporate form in order to serve some social good. Contractual Theory: the firm is a connection of contracts among all of its constituencies, in which groups deploy their economic assets for some return.
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE CULTURE IN GENERAL Perspectives
31
• • • • •
Traditional: Culture is a social heritage Behavioral: Way of living Structural: Forms, values, shared by members Functional: Way of solving problems and dealing with adaptation issues in regard of human activieis Mental: Cognitive process. Höfstede: “Mental program of human beings” = Culture.
Dominant culture, subculture Strong vs weak culture Organizational vs national culture
CULTURE VS CLIMATE Culture: A system of shared norms, rules, mores and ethics by the members of a given society. Learned and transmitted from generation to generation. Not static; culture changes very slowly over time. Climate: Climate portrays organizational environments as being rooted in the organization’s value system, but tends to present these social environments in relatively static terms, describing them in terms of a fixed set of dimensions. Point Reference Link Source Generalization Point of View Methodology Temporal Orientation Level of Analysis
Climate Refers to a situation Links to thoughts, feelings, behaviors Growing out of Lewinian field theory Possible
Culture Refers to an evolved context Rooted in history
Growing out of social construction framework Not possible, each culture is unique Etic – Describes concepts as part of Emic – Describes concepts as part observer of culture Quantitative Qualitative Historical snapshot Evolution over time Surface, observations Deep, individual meanings
LEADERSHIP & CULTURE Sources of culture: Beliefs & values & assumptions of founders, learning experiences of members, new beliefs & values & assumptions brought in by new members and leaders. Culture is rooted in the vision (means: culture) of the founder; and the leaders who sustain the vision. If leaders vision would be wrong, the group would be disbanded soon. How leaders embed & transmit culture • • • • • •
Specifying what they pay attention to; what they measure; and what they control Reactions to critical incidents and organizational crises Observed criteria for resource allocation Role modeling, teaching, coaching Observed criteria for Allocation of rewards or status Observed criteria for Recruitment, selection, promotion, etc
32
CULTURE THEORIES HOFSTEDE Artifacts: Symbols, heroes, rituals, values Dimensions: Power distance, Individualism vs Collectivism, Masculenity vs Femininity, Uncertainty avoidance, Long Term vs Short Term orientation
SCHEIN
Artifacs: Heroes, Symbols, Rituals
DENISON Dimensions: •
•
•
•
Involvement o Empowerment o Team orientation o Capability development Consistency o Core values: Set of values, creating a sense of identity o Agreement: employees capacity to reach an agreement on critical issues o Coordination & integration: Separate units able to work together towards goal Adaptability o Creating change: Ability to develop alternative ways of meeting external & internal changing needs o Customer focus o Organizational learning: Lessons out of experience Mission o Strategic direction: Strategic intentions towards goals o Goals & objectives: Operasyonel hedefler o Vision: Common vision enables eomployees to use their creativity
QUEEN
33
GLOBE PROJECT examining the inter‐relationships between societal culture, organizational culture, and organizational leadership. Culturan Dimensions: • • • • • • • • • •
Performance Orientation: It is the degree to which a society encourages and rewards group embers for performance improvement. Uncertainty Avoidance: This dimension is the society’s reliance on social norms and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events. Humane Orientation: This is the degree to which a society encourages individuals to be fair, altruistic, generous, caring and kind to others. Individualism vs. Collectivism: It is the degree to which individuals are encouraged by social institutions to be integrated into groups within organizations and society. Institutional Collectivism: It is the degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action. In‐Group Collectivism: It is the extent to which members of a society take pride in membership in small groups; such as families, circle of close friends and a company. Assertiveness: It is the extent to which a society encourages people to be tough, assertive and competitive. Gender Egalitarianism: It is the extent to which a society maximizes gender role differences. Future Orientation: It is the extent to which a society encourages future‐oriented behaviors, such as planning and investing in the future. Power Distance: This is the degree to which members of a society expect power to be unequally shared.
Leadership Attributes: • • •
Universal Positives: There are 22 attributes universally regarded as contributing to good business leadership, including “trustworthy,” “motive arouser,” and “excellence oriented”. Universal Negatives: There are 8 attributes universally regarded as inhibiting outstanding business leadership, including “irritable” and “dictatorial”. Culturally Contingent: Most revealing are 35 attributes viewed in some societies as promoting good leadership, and in other societies as impeding good leadership. This list includes surprises such as “cunning,” “evasive,” “class conscious,” and even “sensitive”.
Culturally endorsed leadership theory dimensions: •
•
•
Charismatic / Value Based: This CLT captures a leader’s ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect high performance outcomes. This CLT was associated with “self‐sacrifice,” “integrity,” “decisive,” and “performance oriented”. A key finding is that all cultures saw this dimension as very substantially contributing to outstanding leadership (Grove, 2007). However, being charismatic was considered more relevant in cultures with a high performance orientation (Yukl, 2002). Team Oriented: It is described as emphasizing effective team‐building and implementation of a common purpose or goal among team members. All cultures saw “team orientation” as contributing substantially to outstanding leadership (Grove, 2007). However, this dimension was considered more relevant for leader effectiveness in cultures that are collectivistic rather than individualistic (Yukl, 2002). Participative: This CLT reflects the degree to which managers involve others in making and implementing decisions. Germanic Europe most positively associated “participative” with outstanding
34
•
•
•
leadership. The least positive association was in the Middle East, where its association was modestly above the mid‐point (Grove, 2007). This means, being participative was considered more relevant for leadership effectiveness in cultures with low power distance and low avoidance of uncertainty (Yukl, 2002). Human Oriented: This CLT reflects supportive and considerate leadership, but also includes compassion and generosity. Worldwide, this CLT was viewed as only moderately contributing to outstanding leadership (Grove, 2007). Self‐Protective: This dimension focuses on ensuring the safety and security of the individual or group. Worldwide, this CLT was viewed as not contributing to outstanding leadership. The highest score, by South Asian cultures, was just below the mid‐point (Grove, 2007). Autonomous: This CLT refers to independent and individualistic leadership (Grove, 2007).
In the study of Paşa, Kabasakal and Bodur in 2001, GLOBE’s findings were tested empirically in a Turkish study. Here are some significant results: (Paşa, Kabasakal, & Bodur, 2001) • • • •
Collectivism has found to be the most dominant organizational value. Collectivistic values are found to influence leadership behaviors of “Paternalistic‐considerate” and “Laissez‐Faire”. Being the second dominant organizational values, performance orientation and uncertainty avoidance were not found to influence observed leadership behaviors. Values of self‐sacrificial, integrity, power distance and quality were found to influence the leadership behaviors of “Hierarchical‐Autocratic”, “Transactional‐Team Oriented” and “Laissez‐Faire”. The most frequently observed leadership types were: o Hierarchical‐autocratic o Paternalistic‐considerate o Transactional‐team oriented o Laissez‐Faire
HR POLICIES AND PRACTICES RECRUITMENT SELECTION Selection devices: Interview, written tests, performance‐simulation tests, work sample tests Recruitment & job hunting methods: Media ads (Newspaper ads, electronic media, situation‐wanted ads), point of purchase methods, campus recruitment, outside recruiters (employment agencies, executive search firms, public employment agencies), employee referrals, direct mail, computer databases, job fairs
INTERVIEW Realistic Job Previews: Involves giving an applicant an honest assesment of a job. Reasons for lack of interview validity: Poor intuitive ability, lack of job relatedness, primacy effect, cotrast effect, negative‐information bias, interview‐interviewee similarity, appearance, nonverbal cues To improve interviews: Training, structured interviews, situational interviews
REFERENCES
35
Reason to use references: Confirming resume, checking for discipline problems, discovering new information, predicting future performance Problems when using references: Leniency, knowledge of applicant, reliability, extraneous factors
TESTS When choosing tests: Reliability & validity, cost & ease of use, potential for legal problems, scoring methods, speed vs power Types of tests: • •
18
19
Psychological tests : interest inventories , ability tests, job‐knowledge tests Physical agility tests
Assessment centers: In‐basket technique, simulations, work samples, leaderless group discussions, business games
JOB ANALYSIS & EVALUATION JOB ANALYSIS Needed for: Job descriptions, employee selection, training, personpower planning, performance appraisal, job classification, job evaluation, job design Job description must include: Job title, DOT code, Brief summary, work activities, tools used, work context, performance standards, personal requirements Info is gathered through: Interviews, observation, task analysis, job praticipation Gathering Information: •
• • •
Tasks & Activities o Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ). Cons: College level o Job Structure Profile (JSP). Revised version of PAQ o Job Elements Inventory (JEI). Less educated people can understand. o Functional Job Analysis (FJA). Used by federal government to analyse and compare thousands of jobs. Tools & Equipment: Job Components Inventory (JCI) Work Environment: Arbeitswissenscahftliches Erhebungsverfahren zur Tatigkeitsanalyse (AET). KSAO’s o Critical Incident (CIT) o Job Components Inventory (JCI) o Treshold Traits Analysis (TTA). Like JCI. o Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F‐JAS). Rate list of abilities, highly structured. o Job‐Element Approach
JOB EVALUATION 18 Örnek: Big Five 19 Katılımcılara “do you like to repair electrical wiring?” gibi like / dislike sorular soruyorsun
36 Process of determining a jobs worth. Internal pay equity important: •
•
Internal Equity o Ranking Method: İşleri önemine göre listele, üstteki alttakinden fazla alsın o Point Method: Faktörleri belirle, faktöleri puanla, kişiler özelliklerine göre puan (=para) alsın External Equity: Salary Surveys
COMPANSATION SYSTEMS Variable Pay Programs • • •
Piece‐rate pay plans Profit‐sharing plans (organization wide) Gainsharing (group productivity)
Skill Based Pay Plans Flexible Benefits
TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT TRAINING Determining needs: • • •
Organizational analysis Task analysis Person analysis: Performane appraisal, surveys, interviews, skill & knowledge tests, critical incidents
Training types: • • •
20
Classroom instruction: Seminars, programmed instruction , case studies, critical incidents 21 22 Sample Job Performance: Simulation, Role Playing, Modeling , Behavior Modeling , Job Rotation Informal on‐the‐job training: Apprentice training, Coaching, Performance Appraisal
Encouraging the user of training material: goal setting, feedback, incentives for learning
LEARNING How do we learn? • • •
Classical conditioning (Pavlov gibi). Satınalma davranışı – Shaving cream & pleasure Operant conditioning: Eylemsel. Positive & negative reinforcement. Social learning: Biri ödül veya ceza alıyor, sen ona bakıp örnek alıyorsun.
Types of training: basic literacy skills, technical skills, interpersonal skills, problem‐solving skills Training methods: on‐the‐job, off‐the‐job 20 Booklet ver, kitap gibi okusun sonra sınavı çözsün 21 By watching other employees 22 Role playing gibi, ama örnek aldığın kişi gerçekçiden ziyade ideal davranışlar sergiliyor
37
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Appraise performance, not effectiveness. What people do; observable, relevant to goals, measurable. Evaluate contextual performance as well. Requirements: Content must be objective, job‐related, behavior‐based, ratee control, relate to specific functios. Procedure must be standardized, formally declared, provide deficincies, provide suggestions, review allowed, input allowed, multiple trained raters, abuse detection. Sources of info: • • •
Production data: Üretimden gelen veriler. Ama her zaman tam doğruyu göstermez, çevresel faktörler birini iyi kötü yaomış olabilir. Personnel data: HR verileri. Kaç gün işe gelmemiş gibi. Judgemental data. Değerlendiren kişinin yargısı.
Techniques •
• •
•
Top – Down Evaluation o Graphical Rating Scales o Employee Comparison. Leniency & central tendency önler, halo’yu önlemez. Rank order. İyi – kötü arasındaki farkın miktarı belli olmaz. Paired comparison. Zayıf yanı, kalabalık şirketlerde çok vakit alması. Forced distribution. Normal dağılım varmış gibi varsayp insanları oraya yerleştirmek. Herkes iyi veya herkes kötüyse bu göz ardı edilecektir. o Behavioral Checklists. Davranışa dayanır. Critical incidents. Yıl içinde performansı arttıran veya azaltan davranışlar not edilir, ve sonra kişiler ona göre değerlendirilir. Olumsuz: Makinayı çalışır halde bıraktı. Olumlu: Hep baret giydi BARS – Behaviorally anchored rating scale. Incident’ler 5‐10 dimension’da toplanır. Dimension’lar iyiden kötüye sıralanır. Üst sıradakileri yapanlar iyi, alt sıradakileri yapanlar kötü olarak belirlenir. BOS – Behavioral observation scale. BARS gibi, farkı: o davranışı belli bir dönemde ne kadar tekrarladığına bağlı. 23 Self Assesment. Overevaluation ve leniency olabilir. Peer assessment. Zor tarafı, arkadaşlar birbirine kötü demek istemeyebilir veya birbirine puan vermek istemeyebilir. o Peer Nomination: Her bir üye, belli bir dimension’la göre en iyi (mesela) 3 üyeyi seçer. o Peer Rating: Her bir üye, diğerlerine belli dimension’lara göre puan verir o Peer Ranking: Her bir üye, diğerlerini belli bir dimension’a göre en iyiden en kötüye doğru dizer 360 Degree Feedback. Manager’lar için herkesten Appraise etmesi beklenir. Increases self‐awareness.
Rater Subjects Common errors o Halo error o Leniency error o Central‐tendency error • Rater Training 23 yumuşakça. Mesela manager’lar kendilerini supervisor’larından daha az kırıcı değerlendiriyorlar •
38
•
o Prevent errors o Prevention ~ accuracy? o Rater calibration Rater Motivation o No reward o Help friends o Emp. Rating = Man. Rating o Prevent negavite reactions
ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE & STRESS MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE Organizational change is the movement of an organization away from its present state and toward some desired future state to increase its effectiveness • • • •
Reengineering TQM Innovation Restructuring
Need for Change: Proactive, Reactive, Crisis Dealing with resistance: • • • • •
Negotiation: Güçlü biri değişim sonunda birşey kaybedecekse Participation & Involvement: Bilgi eksikliği varsa ve güçlüyse Communication & Education: Bilgi eksikliği varsa ve zayıfsa Facilitation & Support: Altyapı eksikliği varsa Coercion: Hızlı değişim gerekiyorsa
CHANGE MODELS McKinsey /‐S Model There are seven factors working collectively, which are part of this model: (Cellars, 2007) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Shared Values: Mission / vision of the company Strategy: How the company plans to react towards external changes Structure: Organizational structure of the company Systems: Procedures about how the work should be done Style: Organizational culture and management style Staff: Employees and their responsibilities
39
7.
Skill: The abilities of the employees and the organization
There are many benefits and disadvantages of the McKinsey model (Cellars, 2007). Advantages are: • • •
It is an effective way to understand an organization It is a guide for organizational change All parts are interrelated; therefore, all portions must be addressed and focused on
The disadvantages are; when one part is changed, all parts must be changed as well because of interdependency. There is evidence that after the five years, many of the companies using this model fell from the top. Therefore; except its usefulness to understand an organization, it is not wise to accept this model as the most useful one. Lewin’s Three Step Model Unfreezing, Movement, Freezing. Kotter’s Eight Step Plan Like Lewin’s, but more detailed. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed. Form a coalition with enough power to lead change. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision. Communicate the vision throughout the organization. Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk taking and creative problem solving. Plan for, create, and reward short‐term “wins” that move the organization toward the new vision. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in the new programs. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviors and organizational success.
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Organizational development (OD) is the use of social science knowledge to improve organizational effectiveness. Organizational development is a special approach to organizational change in which the employees themselves formulate the change that’s required and implement it, often with the assistance of a trained consultant. Five steps: • • • • •
Diagnosis: Collect data about group, organization, vs Feedback: Give information to them Planning: Plan future steps Intervention Follow‐up Evaluation
STRESS MANAGEMENT Stress: A dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint, or demand related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important. Sources of stress:
40
• • •
Environmental factors (economic / political / technological uncertainty) Organizatioal factors (task / role / interpersonal demsnds, org. structure & leadership) Individual factors (family / economic problems, personality)
Consequences • • •
Physiological symptoms (headache, high blood pressure, heart disease) Psychological symptoms (anxiety, depression, decrease in job satisfaction) Behavioral symtoms (prductivity, absenteeism, turnover)
Managing stress: • •
Individual approaches. Time management training, physical exercise, relaxation techniques, social support networks. Organizational approaches. Better selection & placement decisions, better goal setting, redesigning jobs, organizational communication.
LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS Organization, which has developed the continous capacity to adopt and change. Single Loop vs Double Loop Learning Characteristics: • • • • •
Shared vision Discard old ways Open systems approach Open communication Sublimate self interest
Disciplines: •
• • •
Systems thinking o Balance process with delay: shower o Self sustaining vs Self limiting growth: borsa iniş çıkış, neresinde satıyorsun o Shifting the burden: cure disease, not symptoms. Sample: don’t cure stress by drinking o Tragedy of Commons o Personal mastery: deepen one’s vision and sustaining lifelong learning. Hayaller yukarı çekerken gerçeklik aşağı çeker Mental models: Kafamızdaki modeller gerçeklikten uzak olabilir. Önlem: Make reasoning explicit, define assumptions clearly, encourage others to find gaps, inquire into other views Building a shared vision: Polariod – Instant Photography gibi. Vizyon, Personal Vision’lara da uymalı Team Learning: Jazz grupları veya NBA takımları gibi. How? Sustain dialogue & discussion
Learning Disabilities: • • • • •
I am my position: Limits responsibility, blindness of interaction The enemy is out there: Blaming others. Marketing Production. Result of system blindness Illusion of taking charge: Proactiveness is reactiveness in disguise. Örnek: Proje ucuz olsun diye ucuz ABAPçı alıyorsun ama üretim yanlış hesaplandığı için uzun vadede daha kötü oluyor. Fixation on events: Kısa vadeye odaklanmak. Parable of boiled frog
41
• •
Delusion of learning from experience: R&D daha hafif bir saç kurutma makinası yapıyor, ama müşteri dokunuşunu “Cheap” bulduğu için almıyor. Must have feedback – hard in open systems Myth of management team: Usually, solving an urgent problem is the subject of a management team meeting, and a good solution will be rewarded. On the other hand, questioning the company’s current policies will not
Laws of learning organizations: • • •
• • • • •
•
•
Today’s Problems Come From Yesterday’s Solutions: Ayakkabıcı günü kurtarmak için indirim yapıyor, ama sonar ucuz ayakkabılarla aynı seviyeye düşüyor imajı The Harder You Push, The Harder The System Pushes Back. ¨Example: USA aid program Behavior Will Grow Better Before It Will Grow Worse: Yazılımcı projeyi yetiştiremedi diyelim. Test sürecini zayıf tutup “gecikme” problemini çözdü diyelim. O anda aferin dendi. Ama uzun vadede yazılım patlayınca o kötü yazılımcı olarak bilinecek. The Easy Way Out Usually Leads Back In: “Bigger Hammer”. carpenter who is trying different type of hammers to get a nail out of a cabinet. What he really needs is a pair of pincers. The Cure Can Be Worse Than The Disease. ¨Example: Alcoholism Faster is Slower. As a managerial principle, it is a better idea to remove the factors limiting growth instead of pushing growth. Cause & Effect Are Not Closely Related. Sales bad? Wrong: Fire salespeople. Right: Inspect reasons. Least Obvious Areas of Leverage: when school officials make the decision to introduce educational reforms, simply sitting down with teachers and easing their concerns about the impact these reforms will have on their lives can go a long way toward paving the way for a smooth transition You Can Have Your Cake, and Eat It Too. But Not All At Once! This is an incorrect belief. Some items in Ikea’s catalogue of 2008 are cheaper than the catalogue of 2007. IKEA stated that this happened because they were able to decrease the price because of the high volume of sales and new production methods. Dividing An Elephant In Two Doesn’t Produce 2 Elephants. Open systems have integrity. 24
25
Leadership in LO: Leader as Designer , Leader as Teacher , Leader as Steward, Transformational Leadership
24 Sistemleri tasarlarken de bulunmalı yönetici. Mesela ERP projesi varsa, tasarım aşamasında olmalı 25 Create a space for learning & invite people into it
Related Documents
A General Summary Of Organizational Behavior
May 2020 11
Project Of Organizational Behavior
November 2019 28
Organizational Behavior
May 2020 25
Organizational Behavior
May 2020 13
Organizational Behavior
October 2019 28
Organizational Behavior
October 2019 22More Documents from ""
Regression Analysis With Spss (turkish)
May 2020 14
Vampirler
April 2020 5
Blair Witch Efsanesi
April 2020 9
A General Summary Of Organizational Behavior
May 2020 11
Matrix'in Tam Hikayesi
April 2020 9