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Apat na teorya sa pagbasa a. Teoryang Bottom-Up- Ito ay isang traditional na pagbasa. Ito ay bunga ng teoryang behaviorist na higit na nagbibigay pokus sa kapaligiran sa paglinang ng komprehension sa pagbasa. Ayon sa teoryang ito, ang pagbasa ay pagkilala ng serye ng nakasulat na mga simbolo upang maibigay ang katumbas nitong tugon. Nananalig ang teoryang ito na ang pagkatuto sa pagbasa ay nagsisimula sa pagkilala sa mga titik, salita, parirala, at pangungusap bago malaman ang kahulugan ng teksto. Sinasabi nitong ang pagbasa ay pagkilala ng mga salita, at ang teksto ang pinakamahalaga sa pagbasa. Ang mambabasa ay isang pasib na partisipant lamang sa proseso ng pagbasa dahil ang tangin tungkulin niya ay ulitin ang lahat ng mga detalyeng nakasaad sa tekstong kanyang binasa. Ang proseso ng pag-unawa ayon sa teoryang ito, ay nagsisimula sa teksto (bottom), patungo sa mambabasa (up), kaya tinawag itong bottom up. b. Teoryang Top-Down- Nabuo ito bilang reaksyon sa naunang teorya. Ito ay dahil napatunayan ng maraming dalubhasa na ang pag-unawa ay hindi nagsisimula sa teksto kundi sa mambabasa tungo sa teksto. Ito ay impluwensya ng sikolohiyang Gestalt na naniniwalang ang pagbasa ay isang prosesong holistik. Ayon dito, ang mambabasa ay napakaaktib na partisipant sa proseso ng pagbasa, na siya ay may taglay na dating kaalamang nakaimbak sa kanyang isipan ay may sariling kakayahan sa wika na kanyang ginagamit habang nakikipagtalastasan sa may-akda sa pamamagitan ng teksto. Tinatawag din ang teoryang ito na inside out o cenceptually-driven dahil ang kahulugan o impormasyon ay nagsisimula sa mambabasa patungo sa teksto. Ito ay nangyayari dahil ang mambabasa ay gumagamit nga kanyang mga dating kaalaman at ng konseptong nabuo sa kanyang isipan mula sa kanyang mga karanasan at pananaw sa paligid. Bunga nito, nakakabuo siya ng kanyang mga palagay at hinuha na kanyang iuugnay sa mga ideyang inilalahad ng awtor ng isang teksto. c. Teoryang Interaktib- Bunga naman ito ng pambabatikos ng mga dalubhasa sa ikalawang teorya. Ayon sa mga proponent nito, ang top-down at maaaring akma lamang sa mga bihasa nang bumasa at hindi sa mga baguhan pa lamang. Higit na angkop daw ang kombinasyong top-down at bottom-up na nagpapahiwatig ng dalawang direksyon ng komprehensyon, itaas-pababa at ibaba-pataas. Ayon sa teoryang ito, ang teksto ay kumakatawan sa wika at kaisipan. Dito nagaganap ang interaksyong awtor-mambabasa at mambabasa-awtor.. kung gayon, ang interaksyon ay may dalawang direksyon o bi-directional. Masasabing ang teoryang ito ay isang pagbibigay-diin sa pag-unawa sa pagbasa bilang isang proseso at hindi bilang produkto. d. Teoryang Iskima- Mahalaga ang tungkuling ginagampanan sa pagbasa ng dating kaalaman ng mambabasa. Ito ang batayang paniniwala ng teoryang iskima. Bawat bagong impormasyong nakukuha sa pagbabasa ay naidaragdag sa dati nang iskima. Samakatuwid, bago pa man basahin ng isang mambabasa ang teksto, siya ay may taglay nang ideya sa nilalaman ng teksto mula sa kanyang iskima sa paksa. Maaaring binabasa na niya lamang ang teksto upang mapatunayan kung ang hinuha o hula niya tungkol sa teksto ay tama, kulang o dapat baguhin. Dahil dito, maaaring sabihin na ang teksto ay isang input lamang sa proseso ng komprehensyon. Hindi teksto ang iniikutan ng proseso ng pagbasa, kundi ang tekstong nabubuo sa isipan ng mambabasa.

Evaluating an existing Enterprise The prospective buyer should make inquiries from employees, customer, suppliers, competitors and bank. Here are some areas to evaluate: 1. Reason for selling -

Retirement Illness Employment Opportunities somewhere Going abroad Financial problems

2. Earning power -

Profitability o the firm Financial statement for the last five years

3. Other Factors -

Demand for the firm’s products/services Number of competitors Future trend of the industry Present location of the business

Steps in starting a new business 1. Plan the business. 2. Choose the most suitable form of business organization. 3. Look for fair credit facilities; that is, if your friends are not enough. 4. Select a good business location. 5. Secure license, permit and other required documents for business operation. 6. Set up records for financial, physical, and personnel resources. 7. Insure the business if necessary. 8. Promote your business. 9. Manage your business. 10. Perform your social responsibility.

Project feasibility explained The project feasibility study includes financial feasibility, production feasibility, market feasibility and steady management as well as the contributions of the project to the Philippine economy. The market study alone is sufficient to provide the necessary information as to whether to pursue the business venture or not. It presents the demand for a product or service for the past 5 to 10 years; major users of the product or service; and the projected consumption for the past five years. On the supply side, it shows the sources of supplies for the past 5 to 10 years; and the factors affecting trends in the past and future supply. In addition, the market feasibility offers a proposed marketing program. Annexed to this chapter is a standard project study format. It can be modified or adapted depending upon the nature of the business, especially micro businesses like a small sari-sari store. However, the basic point is that no matter how small the business is, the entrepreneur should have an accurate knowledge of market conditions. For instance, the number of buyers, together with the nature of their jobs and incomes. Likewise, the number of competitors, their prices, quality of their products and services, and credit terms to be evaluated.

THE PROJECT STUDY Introduction A business project, whether an entirely new venture or an expansion of an existing one, is undertaken in order to accomplish an objective to produce and sell products/services for profit for an attractive rate of return to the investors. To accomplish this will require adequate planning and implementation. A project study is prepared as initially designed, to have a good chance of making profit if implemented. Basically, the project study takes into consideration the environment in which the business will operate or is currently operating and the resources that will be put into the project, namely: manpower, machines and equipment, money and time. It should cover, therefore, the basic aspects of management, marketing, production, finance, and all the factors that will affect its operation. BASIC PHASES Management The management aspect is aimed at designing the form of ownership (for new ventures) although in the most cases this is already predetermined, as well as the internal structure for managing the project. Marketing The marketing study is aimed at determining and analyzing the demand and supply for the product/service in the past and making projections of the demand and supply in the future: ascertaining its competitive position in the industry, and designing the marketing program for the product/service. Production The production aspect describes the technology that will be used in making the product. It includes product specification, (mechanical, chemical, and physical properties), description of equipment and raw materials to be used and the process

involved. It also includes a study on the plant location, layout, and other facilities vital to operation.

Financing The financial aspect is meant to determine the cost of the project and cash requirement and the source and cost of financing the project. Financial analysis is presented showing returns on investment, return on equity, breakeven sales, and price sensitivity test.

GENERAL FORMAT The following is the format of a project study in general. I. Introduction This portion discusses the background and rationale at why the project study is being undertaken. II. Summary of the Project Study A. Name of the firm B. Location of head office factory C. Brief description of the project 1. Brief history of the business(if already existing) and/or nature or kind of industry 2. Highlights of the findings in each phase of the project study III. Proponent, Management and Personnel A. Proponent refers to owners, project originators, promoters, and founders. B. Management -

Officers of the business and their qualifications. Supporting professional firms during the pre-operating period and during the operating period.

C. Personnel -

during the pre-operating period during the operating period

D. Project Time-Table (optional) through GANTT chart or PERT-CPM IV. Market Feasibility A. Market description – a brief description of the market to describe the buyers and users of the product and areas of dispersion. B. Demand 1. Consumption in the past five to ten years 2. Major users of the products 3. Projected consumption for the next five years C. Supply 1. Supply for the past five to ten years is broken down as a source, whether imported or locally produced. 2. Factors affecting trends in the past and future supply. D. Competitive position 1. Selling prices, including a price study indicating the past imports and domestic prices. The high and the low prices within the year and the effect of seasonality. 2. Competitiveness of the quality of the product 3. Channels of the distribution 4. General trade practices- This is a description of the existing marketing practices of the competitors. E. Proposed Marketing Program 1. Description of proposed product/service characteristics a. For tangible products b. Packaging(when applicable) 2. Description of the proposed market target. Market targets may be classified as follows: a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Geographical location Age Sex Income bracket Educational attainment Religious affiliation Others

h. A combination of some or all the above categories 3. Proposed prices 4. Proposed channel of distribution

5. Proposed promotional activities F. Projected Sales – expected annual sales volume for the next five years considering the supply and demand situation, the competitive position, and the marketing program.

Group II Submitted by: Rhea Lyn De Ocampo BSBA MM 1-2

Requirements for registration

The Board of Directors with the assistance of the members of the Documents Committee shall prepare all the documents necessary for the registration of the cooperative. Such documents shall be submitted to the Cooperative Development Authority;

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Four copies of the economic survey with a general statement describing the; a. Structure b. Purpose c. Economic feasibility d. Area of operation e. Size of membership f. Other pertinent data

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Four copies of the Articles of Cooperation, together with bond of accountable officers

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Four copies of the by- laws

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Registration fee payable to Cooperative Development Authority.

Entrepreneurial Skills 1. Financial – the entrepreneur must be knowledgeable about the financial aspects of business decisions. 2. Marketing- the entrepreneur must have the right product to satisfy the needs of the consumers. But this is only the starting point. Such product must also have the right price, the proper promotion, and the appropriate place it can be sold. 3. Managerial skills-

4. Overall personal decision-making process