20091120 Roads Act 40 Km Hpaz Report Part A

Contract Report Final Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities A background report for public consultation by

Katherine McCray, David McTiernan

for

Roads ACT

001291- 1 Final November 2009

Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities T09699 A background report for public consultation for

Roads ACT

Reviewed Project Leader

Quality Manager

001291- 1 Final November 2009 Commercial in confidence

Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

Summary Following safe system principles, the application of reduced speed limits, in areas of high pedestrian activity, such as around shopping centres and community facilities, is being investigated by the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) government. Research and experience clearly shows a reduced speed limit can improve safety for vulnerable road users such as pedestrians and cyclists by reducing the forces of impact in the event of a collision with motor vehicles. Roads ACT have commissioned ARRB Group (ARRB) to investigate the benefits and applicability of reduced speed limits around shopping centre and community facilities in the ACT. This report presents the results of a literature review of current pedestrian safety principles and a best practice review of the use of 40 km/h speed limits in Australian jurisdictions. Based on these reviews, together with an understanding of road conditions in the ACT, ARRB has concluded that targeted application of reduced speed limits does have merit and can provide improved pedestrian and cyclist safety in the ACT. A reduction in speed will have additional, flow on road safety benefits by reducing the incidence and severity of all crashes. Consultation Roads ACT have identified that prior to any implementation of a program of reduced speed zones, consultation with the ACT community and road user stakeholders should be undertaken. The ACT has an establish stakeholder working group and other committees that are to be consulted, including:



Road Users Working Group – consisting of representatives from NRMA Motoring Services, Motorcycle Riders Association, Pedal Power and Canberra Pedestrian Forum

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Road Safety Task Force – consisting of representatives from TAMS, ACT Policing, Department of Education and Training , Department of Treasury and NRMA-ACT Road Safety Trust

This report will form a component of the consultation process for the consideration of adopting reduced speed zones in the ACT Draft Model Guideline Following the community consultation process, a draft model guideline will outline site selection criteria, the recommended hours of operation, extent of coverage and the type of remedial traffic calming measures that may be required to support reduced speed limits, if they are adopted by the ACT community and government. The elements for a draft model guideline for developing and applying a reduced, 40 km/h, speed limit in areas of high pedestrian activity are presented in this report. These elements are drawn from the practice and experience in other Australian jurisdictions and provide a basis for discussion and review.

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Although the Report is believed to be correct at the time of publication, ARRB Group Ltd, to the extent lawful, excludes all liability for loss (whether arising under contract, tort, statute or otherwise) arising from the contents of the Report or from its use. Where such liability cannot be excluded, it is reduced to the full extent lawful. Without limiting the foregoing, people should apply their own skill and judgement when using the information contained in the Report.

Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 Selection Criteria It is considered that the criteria for introducing a reduced speed limit should include:



high levels of pedestrian and cycling movements crossing the subject traffic streams



retail and commercial development, which meets the minimum length as set out in the following table: Length of Retail and Commercial Development Criteria Shopping Centre Type Town Centre Group Centre Local Centre



Minimum length of retail and commercial development 400m 200m 200m

the status of the subject roads within the ACT road hierarchy

At locations where the above selection criteria is met, the adjoining and surrounding roads should also be considered for inclusion in the reduced speed limit scheme to create a 40 km/h precinct. A 40 km/h precinct should be considered even where the length of development is shorter than the length criteria set out above, to provide a consistency in speed zone and to encompass peripheral pedestrian and cycling movements associated with surrounding retail and commercial development or public transport interchanges. The presence of community facilities may also influence the boundaries of 40 km/h precincts if they are situated near a shopping centre. However, community facilities cover a broad and mixed range of activities and may not generate large numbers of pedestrians and cyclists. Nor may they generate activity over an extended period of time and therefore no specific assessment criteria relating to community facilities as a distinct land use is suggested. Road Environment The road environment is an important factor in considering where to apply a reduced speed zone. A 40 km/h speed limit is more appropriately applied to minor collector roads and access streets, than to major collector and arterial roads. The higher order roads primarily serve as transport routes and subsequently carry larger traffic volumes with higher traffic speeds. Pedestrian and cyclist traffic needing to cross these roads are generally provided with other crossing facilities. Hours of Operation The reduced speed limit can be applied on a part-time basis to reflect the dominant pedestrian/cyclist periods. Reflecting the typical spread of trading hours in the ACT, and to provide a measure of standardisation across the ACT, it is suggested that part-time applications of the reduced speed limit should be as follows:

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8:00am to 6:00pm Saturday to Thursday

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8:00am to 10:00pm Friday

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Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 Engineering Works As a minimum, signage at the boundary to the 40 km/h precinct will be required to inform motorists of the reduced speed zone. Repeater signs may also be installed within the 40 km/h zone to further reinforce the application of the reduced speed limit. Road pavement markings and traffic calming measures may also be required to ensure motorist driving speeds are reduced and commensurate with the objectives of the 40 km/h signposted speed limit. Impact on Travel Time Research has shown that a reduced speed limit is not likely to have a significant impact on average travel times. This is further supported by the assessment criteria, which limits the 40 km/h speed limit to local roads and minor collector roads, which serve as access to commercial and community areas and not as major, commuter thoroughfares.

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Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

Contents 1

Introduction........................................................................................................... 1 1.1 1.2

2

Overview ...................................................................................................... 1 Background .................................................................................................. 2

Literature and Best Practice Review .................................................................. 3 2.1 Pedestrian and Cyclist Safety Research...................................................... 3 2.1.1 Guide to Road Safety Part 1: Road Safety Overview............................. 3 2.1.2 Speed management: A road safety manual for decisionmakers and practitioners......................................................................... 4 2.1.3 Emerging road safety philosophies and their significance for safe walking ............................................................................................ 5 2.1.4 International Transport Forum report Towards Zero Ambitious Road Safety Targets & the Safe System Approach ............................... 6 2.1.5 Road Safety in Strip Shopping Centres .................................................. 8 2.1.6 Lower Urban Speed Limits – what are the pieces of the jigsaw telling us at this point in time?................................................................. 8 2.1.7 The Impact of Lowered Speed Limits in Urban and Metropolitan Areas,................................................................................. 9 2.1.8 Key Findings ........................................................................................... 9 2.2 Reduced Speed Limits in Australian Jurisdictions ..................................... 10 2.2.1 New South Wales ................................................................................. 10 2.2.2 Victoria .................................................................................................. 13 2.2.3 South Australia...................................................................................... 14 2.2.4 Western Australia.................................................................................. 15 2.2.5 Queensland........................................................................................... 15 2.2.6 Australian Jurisdiction Summary........................................................... 16

3

ACT Road Safety Strategy................................................................................. 17

4

Considerations for Introducing 40 km/h Speed Limits .................................. 19 4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.5

Introduction ................................................................................................ 19 Current Conditions in the ACT ................................................................... 19 Reduced Speed Limits.......................................................................... 19 Shopping Facilities Hierarchy ............................................................... 19 Criteria for Assessment.............................................................................. 20 Land Use............................................................................................... 21 Pedestrian/cyclist activity ...................................................................... 22 Hours of Operation................................................................................ 23 Road environment................................................................................. 23 Signs, Markings and Engineering Works ................................................... 24 Signage ................................................................................................. 24 Pavement Markings .............................................................................. 25 Traffic Calming Measures ..................................................................... 26 Impact on Travel Time ............................................................................... 28 Commercial in confidence

Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

5

Elements for a Model Guideline........................................................................ 30 5.1.1 Land Use and Pedestrian Flows ........................................................... 30 5.1.2 40 km/h Precincts ................................................................................. 30 5.1.3 Hours of Operation................................................................................ 31 5.1.4 Signage ................................................................................................. 31 5.1.5 Pavement Markings .............................................................................. 33 5.1.6 Traffic Calming Measures ..................................................................... 33 5.2 Implementation Process............................................................................. 34 5.3 Project Evaluation and Monitoring ............................................................. 35 5.4 Enforcement............................................................................................... 35

6

Model 40 km/h Schemes for the ACT ............................................................... 36 6.1.1 6.1.2

Typical Costs......................................................................................... 36 Model Scheme ...................................................................................... 37

7

Conclusions and recommendations ................................................................ 41

8

References .......................................................................................................... 42

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Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

Tables Table 2.1: Table 2.2: Table 4.1: Table 4.2: Table 5.1: Table 6.1: Table 6.2:

RTA Selection Criteria .........................................................................11 RTA Treatment Options.......................................................................11 Typical speed management treatments ..............................................27 Travel time comparison over 500 metre length ...................................29 Length of Retail and Commercial Development Criteria .....................30 Model Scheme Costs – Town Centre..................................................38 Model Scheme Costs – Group Centre ................................................40

Figures Figure 2.1: The Safe System Model .......................................................................4 Figure 2.2 Risk of death to a pedestrian as a function of impact speed ................6 Figure 2.3: Fatality risk versus collision speed.......................................................7 Figure 4.1: Criteria for considering 40 km/h HPAZ...............................................20 Figure 4.2: Example gateway entry sign (static) ..................................................24 Figure 4.3: Alternate '40 Area' sign scheme (static).............................................24 Figure 4.4: Signs and pavement markings - full-time/part-time 40 km/h HPAZ ...25 Figure 5.1: 40 km/h Area Signs ............................................................................31 Figure 5.2: High Pedestrian Activity Sign Face ....................................................32 Figure 5.3: 40 km/h Repeater Sign.......................................................................32 Figure 5.4: Static 40 km/h Area Signs for Part-time Limits...................................32 Figure 5.5: Variable Speed Limit Sign for Part-time Limits...................................32 Figure 5.6: Implementation Process.....................................................................34 Figure 6.1: Typical Town Centre Model Scheme Layout .....................................37 Figure 6.2: Typical Group Centre Model Scheme Layout ....................................39

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1 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

1 Introduction 1.1 Overview Roads ACT engaged ARRB Group to undertake a three part project to investigate reduced speed zones around shopping and community facilities in the ACT. The project brief identified the following key tasks: Part A



Investigate the use of 40 km/h speed limits in other jurisdictions, including the criteria used to identify locations, impacts and issues related to enforcement.

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Types of facilities where a 40 km/h speed limit could be applied.

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Develop guidelines for selecting locations, hours of operation, extent of coverage, physical measures to support the reduced speed limit.

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The impact on pedestrian and cyclist safety.

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Indicative cost estimates for implementing the necessary physical measures.

Part B



Develop a method for a consultation process with relevant stakeholders and the community

Part C



Undertake consultation as agreed with Roads ACT

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Prepare a final report including a recommended plan of action for submission to the ACT Legislative Assembly.

This report addresses Part A of the project brief. In researching this project, ARRB undertook a literature review of current pedestrian safety principles and a review of the application of similar use of 40 km/h speed limits in other Australian jurisdictions. Based on these reviews and with an understanding of the local conditions in the ACT, the applicability of 40 km/h speed zones in the ACT has been assessed. A significant component of the project is consultation with road safety stakeholders and the ACT community. To facilitate this consultation ARRB has prepared model guidelines for developing and implementing 40 km/h speed limits in areas of high pedestrian activity, such as around shopping centres and community facilities. The guidelines include selection criteria, the recommended hours of operation, extent of coverage and the type of remedial traffic calming measures that may be necessary to support the operation of reduced speed zones. The next phase of this project is to consult with key stakeholders and the local community to determine if the introduction of 40 km/h speed zones to improve pedestrian and cyclist safety is supported. The final determination of whether reduced speed zones will be applied in the ACT will be subject to the feedback received from the consultation phase.

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2 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

1.2 Background The ACT has an established and well designed road system in a general urban environment, resulting in a good road safety record. Nevertheless, road crashes remain a significant issue for ACT residents. In 2008, there were 7,229 reported ‘on-road’ crashes, of which 14 resulted in a fatality and some 413 resulted in an injury 1. In the national, as well as the ACT context, road safety improvements are guided by safe system principles. A safe transport system acknowledges that human error is inevitable and makes allowance for this error. It recognises there are limits to the forces the human body can withstand in a crash and limits to the physical energy that can be absorbed by protective systems. In this, speed management is a critical factor in reducing the energy of crashes and reducing crash severity. In March 2009 a motion was passed in the ACT Legislative Assembly noting that ‘ensuring the safety of all Canberrans on our roads, including pedestrians, cyclists, drivers and motorcyclists, is of an extreme importance for our community as a whole’. This motion called on the ACT Government to consult on reducing speed zones around shopping centres and community facilities to 40 km/h and report back with a plan of action by the end of 2009 2. Shopping centres and community facilities can be areas of higher crash risk due to the increased conflict between the different road users, namely pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles. The risk of serious injury or a fatality to the vulnerable road user groups increases exponentially with increasing speed. In accordance with safe system principles, to improve pedestrian and cyclist safety, the consideration of 40 km/h speed limits, in areas of high pedestrian activity, such as shopping centres and community facilities, is being investigated by the ACT Government.

1

Source: 2008 Road Traffic Crashes in The ACT, Traffic Management and Safety, May 2009, Roads ACT 2 ACT Government RFQ No. T09699 Commercial in confidence

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3 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

2 Literature and Best Practice Review Both nationally and internationally, strategies for improving the safety of pedestrians and cyclists are numerous and well documented. Improved facilities such as pedestrian crossings, footpaths, on and off-road cycleways etc. are all developed to provide for pedestrian and cycling activity. Road safety education principles such as how to cross the road safely, the benefits of bicycle helmets etc. are taught from a young age. However, the fundamental risk to pedestrians and cyclists remains the speed of motor vehicles. A considerable body of research exists that shows the risk of serious injury or death to pedestrians and cyclists is significantly reduced with lower vehicle speed at the time of impact. A number of Australian road authorities have considered reduced speed limits and developed guidelines for developing lower speed precincts. A selection of the literature relevant to these areas is discussed below.

2.1 Pedestrian and Cyclist Safety Research National and international road safety research shows that the reduction of travel speeds can significantly reduce the severity of crashes involving pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles. While not a comprehensive review, publications that are considered to best represent and discuss pedestrian and cyclist safety in the context of speed management are reviewed below.

2.1.1

Guide to Road Safety Part 1: Road Safety Overview

The Guide to Road Safety Part 1: Road Safety Overview was published by Austroads in 2009. The Guide gives an overview of the Austroads Guide to Road Safety series of publications and introduces the safe systems approach. The safe system approach is recognised in Australia as the guiding principle for road safety. It identifies three key components working in combination for achieving safer travel. These three key components described by Austroads as:

‘ safer speeds – speed limits which are appropriate for the function and construction of the road, terrain and adjoining land use‘

 safer roads and roadsides – treating sites with adverse crash histories or which have the potential to generate higher than average numbers of crashes, roll-out of cost-effective road improvements and mass action programs, providing safer roadsides

 safer vehicles – vehicles which protect occupants through structural design, protective equipment and features designed to ensure use of protective equipment (e.g. seat belt reminders), with design features which reduce injuries to vulnerable road users, and which provide better conspicuity of the vehicle and signals (e.g. through high-mounted brake lights or daytime running lights)’ The safe system interaction of these elements is shown in Figure 2.1.

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4 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

Source: Austroads Guide to Road Safety Part 1

Figure 2.1: The Safe System Model The central consideration of safe systems is ‘to ensure that human bodies are not exposed to greater physical forces than they can withstand without serious damage’. This may be achieved in a number of ways and relevant to this project, ‘most obviously by reducing speeds’ (Austroads 2009a). It is in the context of this nationally adopted approach to road safety, i.e. the safe systems approach, that the consideration of reduced speed limits in areas such as around shopping centres and community facilities in the ACT is considered.

2.1.2

Speed management: A road safety manual for decision-makers and practitioners

The World Health Organisation prepared a road safety manual for decision-makers and practitioners in 2008. The Manual consists of a series of modules that provide ‘evidence of why speed management is important and takes the user through the steps needed to assess the situation in their own country’. The manual states ‘guidelines for setting limits can be derived from the application of safe system principles’. The safe system approach advises that:

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5 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 ‘ if there are large numbers of vulnerable road users on a section of road they should not be exposed to motorized vehicles travelling at speeds exceeding 30 km/h  car occupants should not be exposed to other motorized vehicles at intersections where right-angle, side-impact crashes are possible at speeds exceeding 50 km/h  if there are unshielded poles or other roadside hazards, the speed limits need to be reduced to 50 km/h or less  car occupants should not be exposed to oncoming traffic where their speed and that of the traffic travelling towards them, in each instance, exceeds 70 km/h, and there are no separating barriers between opposing flows’ It is noted in the Manual that ‘speed limits of 30-50 km/h in areas of higher pedestrian crash risk (from vehicles) will substantially reduce pedestrian fatality risks’. The benefits of a reduced speed limit stated to include: ‘ greater time to recognize hazards  reduced distance travelled while reacting to hazards  reduced stopping distance of the vehicle after braking  increased ability of other road users to judge vehicle speed and time before collision  greater opportunity for other road users to avoid a collision  less likelihood that a driver will lose vehicle control’ The need for consistency in speed limits is also recognised in the manual, it states ‘if it appears to a driver that the same type of road has different limits in different places for no obvious reason, then they are more likely to abuse the limit’.

2.1.3

Emerging road safety philosophies and their significance for safe walking

Corben and Oxley (2006) discuss ‘the emergence of new safety philosophies, such as Sweden’s Vision Zero, The Netherlands’ Sustainable Safety, and more recently Australia’s Safe System’. The current state-of-knowledge on opportunities to promote safe walking is presented in this paper, including the extent, nature and trends in pedestrian trauma in Victoria. Key targets for addressing pedestrian trauma, while catering for increased walking, are also defined. The magnitude and timing of reductions in pedestrian trauma observed over the past 20 years in Victoria have been shown to be primarily due to the effects of generalised speed enforcement and alcohol restriction programs. The paper states, ‘risk of death to a pedestrian struck at 30km/h is around 10 percent, at 40 km/h about 20 percent, while for a 50km/h impact, risk rises steeply to about 80 percent. At 60km/h collision speed, the risk of death reaches 100 percent’. This risk profile is plotted as a graph of risk of death versus impact speed and is reproduced in Figure 2.2.

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6 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

Figure 2.2 Risk of death to a pedestrian as a function of impact speed Principles for the design and operation of the road-transport system set out in the paper include: ‘Safe speed environment – avoidance of large differences in mass, speed and direction of travel and maximum permissible speeds to avoid exceeding the biomechanical tolerance of road users. Good urban design – safe pedestrian environments are a natural consequence of designing the traffic environment in ways that either separate pedestrians from traffic or that create urban form within which is intuitive to drive at inherently safe speeds’. The paper also notes that: ‘speed limits are a powerful measure to reduce vehicle speeds in high pedestrian activity areas. There is compelling evidence of the effectiveness of reduced speed limits, and lower travel speeds in reducing pedestrian trauma. Even small reductions in urban speeds can provide sizeable reductions in crash and injury risk’.

2.1.4

International Transport Forum report Towards Zero Ambitious Road Safety Targets & the Safe System Approach

This OECD document discusses road safety across member countries in the context of safe systems principles and it presents a wide range of strategies and studies that have been applied, identifying where improvements in road safety have been achieved. In the area of vulnerable road users, particularly pedestrians and cyclists, the effect of speed and speed reduction is discussed with particular reference to separate studies by Nilsson and by Wramborg. Nilsson identified a power relationship between the change in mean speed and the change in accidents and the number and severity of injuries that results. For instance a reduction in mean speed from 60 km/h to 40 km/h can be expected to result in a 56% reduction in all crashes and a 67% reduction in injury severity. A reduction from 50km/h to 40km/h can be expected to result in a 36% reduction in all crashes and a 45% reduction in injury severity. While the Power Model does not differentiate between crash types or by road users involved, a proportion of the benefits can be expected to accrue for pedestrians and cyclists if a strategy of reduced speed limits were too applied.

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7 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 A paper by Wramborg, presented to an international road safety conference is referenced by the OECD report. It outlines a fatality risk versus collision speed plot for pedestrians and cyclists, Figure 2.3, that presents a profile similar to that presented by Corben and Oxley. The Wramborg study also provides fatality risk profiles for vehicle occupants in other types of crashes, with clear reductions in fatality risk resulting with lower speed impacts.

Source: International Transport Forum report Towards Zero Ambitious Road Safety Targets & the Safe System Approach

Figure 2.3: Fatality risk versus collision speed The OECD report references the experiences for pedestrian and cyclist safety in three European countries, reporting: Pedestrians, cyclists and motorised two-wheeler riders are relatively unprotected in the event of a crash. Speed and mass of the vehicles involved therefore play a critical role in determining the injury outcomes for these groups. Their probability of being either killed or seriously injured is high if struck by a vehicle travelling in excess of 30km/h. Studies in Sweden, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands report that when road engineering and speed management measures have been implemented in tandem to reduce the probability of impact speeds exceeding 30 kph, there have been fatality savings for vulnerable road users of 25% to 35% (Koornstra et al., 2002). There is no reason not to expect similar benefits could not be obtained for the ACT through targeted reduced speed limits.

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8 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

2.1.5

Road Safety in Strip Shopping Centres

Midson (2007) reports ‘the findings of detailed crash analysis of three strip shopping centres that front onto a common main road corridor’ that was conducted in 2004. The findings of the report include: ‘Conflicts between the through traffic and activity associated with the selected strip shopping centres were readily observed between through traffic, parking movements and pedestrian activity. Pedestrian crashes generally had high associated severities and accounted for a significant proportion of all injury crashes across the site. This highlights the vulnerability of these road users.’ The study concluded ‘issues of road safety must take priority over road capacity and efficiency’. Although the ACT does not have strip shopping centre configurations the arrangements in town and group centres are such that roads transfer traffic through the commercial areas where pedestrian activity occurs. The Midson report makes a link between vehicle activity – traffic and parking - and pedestrian safety.

2.1.6

Lower Urban Speed Limits – what are the pieces of the jigsaw telling us at this point in time?

Woolley et. al. (2000) seek to ‘present evidence quantifying the impacts of Lower Urban Speed Limits (LUSL) in terms of measured speeds and volumes, community attitudes, environmental impacts, travel and road safety outcomes based on published and emerging evidence’. The paper is largely based on research into a 40 km/h speed limit scheme in Unley, South Australia. After a 40 km/h speed limit was introduced in Unley, it was found the greatest reduction in speed occurred along streets with the highest speeds before the scheme was introduced. The streets with the lowest speeds showed an increase in the mean speed. The net effect was to reduce the variation in speed across the roads where the scheme was applied. It was noted in the paper that it was too early to draw conclusions on the road safety outcomes as many on the schemes had been in operation for only a year at the time of writing. However, analysis was able to indicate that ‘there may have been a reduction in the number of crashes with property damage only’. The paper concluded that the 40 km/h scheme in Unley was ‘a success in terms of reducing vehicle speeds, volumes and improving resident amenity’. While safety is a clear objective for the introduction of lower speed limits, other outcomes such as improved amenity may also add to the consideration for this action. Slower, calmer traffic will provide an environment that encourages pedestrian and cycling activities as these road user groups are likely to experience a lower sense of ‘intimidation’ from the traffic environment.

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2.1.7

The Impact of Lowered Speed Limits in Urban and Metropolitan Areas,

Archer et. al. (2008) undertook a literature review on ‘speed limit reduction and the impact this has on mobility and general traffic system performance’. The study concluded: ‘ Lowered average travel speeds brought about by a reduction in speed limits in urban and metropolitan areas will bring about considerable reductions in road trauma  A relatively minor impact on average travel times (mobility) will occur at the individual level; at the societal level there are likely to be overall benefits depending on how values are assigned to travel time increases.  Vulnerable road users (pedestrians and cyclists) are likely to benefit most from reductions in average travel speeds’ A clear area of concern for the community when lower speed limits are debated is the impact on travel times. While the impact on travel times for free-flowing traffic can be a relatively simple mathematical calculation, the process is a little more complex in congested urban environments.

2.1.8

Key Findings

The key findings of the literature review of current pedestrian and cyclist safety principles are:



Safer speeds is one of the essential components to the safe systems approach to managing road and traffic environments.

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The risk of death to a pedestrian increases with increasing speed. A collision speed of 40 km/h has an approximate fatality risk of 20%, at 50km/h this rises steeply to approximately 80% and at 60km/h collision speed, the risk of death reaches close to 100%.

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Speed limits are a powerful measure to reduce vehicle speeds when applied appropriately, particularly in high pedestrian activity areas.

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Issues of road safety should take priority over road capacity and efficiency. In urban environments reductions in speed have a negligible effect on both.

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Pedestrians and cyclists are road users with similar levels of vulnerability. Pedestrian crashes, and by extension those involving cyclists, have been observed to have high associated severities.

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Pedestrian crashes account for a significant proportion of all injury crashes.

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The introduction of a 40 km/h precinct can result in reduced vehicle speeds and volumes. This can improve resident amenity and pedestrian and cyclist safety.

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Speed limits need to be applied consistently to gain acceptance and compliance.

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The introduction of a 40 km/h speed limit is likely to result in a relatively minor impact on average travel times will occur at the individual level.

There are additional publications that provide additional support to the findings of this literature review. Reviews of these publications can be provided if required.

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10 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

2.2 Reduced Speed Limits in Australian Jurisdictions Several Australian road authorities have implemented reduced speed limits in areas of high pedestrian activity, such as shopping centres and community facilities. These include the New South Wales Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA), VicRoads, Transport South Australia and Main Roads Western Australia. In each jurisdiction the reduced speed limit that is applied is 40 km/h. The types of areas where a 40 km/h speed limit has been implemented, the hours of operation and an outline of the guidelines adopted in each respective state is set out in the following sections.

2.2.1

New South Wales

Application The 40 km/h urban limit was introduced as part of a nationwide strategy to improve pedestrian safety in areas of high pedestrian activity. The 40 km/h speed zones were first introduced in 1991, as part of Local Area Traffic Management schemes and the reduced speed limit has been implemented in areas of high pedestrian activity, such as CBD areas and suburban shopping strips since that time. The RTA guidelines set out criteria for selection of sites, the implementation process and remedial engineering works required to clearly define and support the 40 km/h pedestrian zones. Guideline:

40 km/h Speed Limits in High Pedestrian Areas, Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW

The 40 km/h speed limit guideline is intended for use in areas with high numbers of pedestrians. The RTA does not define what high numbers of pedestrians represents, however, the types of areas that this treatment targets includes:



central business district areas

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suburban shopping strips

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areas where land-use or facilities generate significant pedestrian traffic (e.g.. beach-side/ park-side reserves)

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business areas generating significant pedestrian traffic such as medical centres, hospitals, and government services agencies.

The guidelines do not discuss the introduction of a 40 km/h speed limit on a part time basis. The steps in selecting locations for implementing a 40 km/h speed limit are as follows: 1. Identification of a high volume pedestrian road/area (note: the RTA guide does not place a threshold figure on the term ‘high’) 2. Selection of treatment options that are appropriate to the road type and existing road environment The criteria for selecting areas of high pedestrian activity are outlined in Table 2.1.

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11 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 Table 2.1: RTA Selection Criteria

Land-use

A Servicing a Business or Commercial area Servicing a Shopping Strip > 1km

Category B Servicing a Shopping Strip < 1km Adjacent to Railway Station Adjacent to Bus Interchange

C Servicing a restaurant Servicing a hotel or entertainment area Adjacent to a Social Security office or medical centre Adjacent to a preschool Adjacent to a retirement village Servicing a sporting complex Adjacent to a recreational area/ beach or park

A road meets the criteria for a pedestrian precinct treatment if it:



meets one item from Category A OR

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meets two items from Category B OR



meets one item from Category B and two items from Category C.

Treatment options for the area or road where the scheme is to be applied include: Table 2.2: RTA Treatment Options Treatment Required 40 km/h area with gateway treatment Traffic calming Measures to maintain vehicle pedestrian separation

Local and regional roads Currently a low Currently not a speed low speed environment environment

State Roads Not a Principle Principle Travel Travel Route Route

























To define the 40 km/h zone, the installation of 40 km/h speed signs with a ‘pedestrian activity’ plate and 40 km/h pavement numerals are required. These need to be installed at the gateway to the 40 km/h zone. Speed limit repeater signs are required at a maximum interval of 500 metres on through roads. End sign posting, including area wide speed limits and an ‘End Area’ sign is required at each exit point to the area.

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12 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 In areas where the existing road layout does not encourage low traffic speeds, traffic calming treatments are recommended. These may include the following:



raised threshold (Wombat Crossing)



footpath and kerb extensions



channelisation



staggered carriageway



managed on-street parking



installation of medians



traffic signal timing.

The RTA specifies that the minimum length of road suitable to be treated with a 40 km/h high volume pedestrian area speed zone is 200 metres. A consultation model has been developed as part of the implementation process and includes the following:



community and stakeholder consultation on a proposed location and preliminary treatments



public information program in the two weeks prior to the installation of the reduced speed limit.

A post installation review, to inspect and review the scheme, is also recommended in the RTA guideline. This is to assess the effectiveness of the treatment and includes the following elements for inspection: 1.

2.

Signs and Markings



Do the signs adequately inform the motorists of the speed limit?



Are there enough signs?



Are the signs in prominent and un-obscured positions?



Do gateway treatments require textural paving to reinforce the 40 km/h speed limit?

Traffic Calming Schemes



Does the traffic calming scheme adequately restrict vehicle speeds throughout the area?



Do service vehicles have satisfactory access to the area?



Are there additional and suitable pedestrian crossings installed?



Does the traffic calming scheme support pedestrian crossings?

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2.2.2

Victoria

Application VicRoads started trials of a 40 km/h speed limit at strip shopping sites in Melbourne in 2003. The hours of operation were determined on a site by site basis and included 24 hour operation, business hour operation and operation alternatives for evening periods. Following the trial period, permanent 40 km/h speed limit zones were introduced at 18 sites. Five additional sites have been proposed since the completion of the initial trial. The findings of the trial of the 40 km/h speed limit identified a reduction in pedestrian casualty crashes by approximately 17%. Guideline:

Guidelines for 40 km/h Strip Shopping Centres

The VicRoads guidelines specify the eligibility criteria, hours of operation, signing standards, project method and funding arrangements for 40 km/h speed zones in strip shopping centres. Locations that meet all the following criteria are eligible for consideration for this initiative:



continuous, predominantly retail and commercial development that directly abuts both sides of the road over a distance of generally not less than 400 metres



a high level of pedestrian activity characterised by frequent movements across the road (note: the VicRoads guideline does not place a threshold figure on high pedestrian activity)



generally with kerbside parking resulting in frequent parking manoeuvres



support for the reduced speed limit from the local community and municipal council.

VicRoads does not define what ‘a high level of pedestrian activity’ or ‘frequent movements across the road’ represents. Infrastructure improvements that are effective in reducing pedestrian crashes such as signalised crossings, pedestrian refuges, kerb outstands and pedestrian fencing, should be considered prior to lowering speed limits. Strip shopping centres on both arterial roads and local roads are eligible. Divided roads and roads with service roads are noted to generally not be suitable. The times of operation are restricted to the following options to reduce driver confusion:



8:00 am to 7:00 pm Monday to Saturday



8:00 am to 12:00 am Monday to Saturday



24 hours, 7 days a week.

Electronic variable signs to indicate the active operation of the 40 km/h speed limit are required on all arterial roads and along local roads where part time strip shopping centre speed limits are established. The standard configuration is for a pair of electronic signs at the start of the 40 km/h speed limit, a single static repeater sign to be installed approximately 50 metres after the commencement of the zone and single repeater electronic signs are required at 400 m to 500 m intervals within the 40 km/h zone. Where static repeater signs are used, the hours of operation of the 40 km/h speed limit must be included on the sign face.

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2.2.3

South Australia

Application A 40 km/h speed limit in built up areas was first introduced in Unley, South Australia in December 1991. A 40 km/h speed limit may be applied in a precinct if the average of mean speeds on all relevant streets is not more than 50 km/h. The 40 km/h speed limit operates 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Guideline:

40 km/h Precinct Speed Limit

The South Australian guide details the use of 40 km/h speed limits in built-up precincts. Included in the guide are the criteria for selection, boundary treatments, signage requirements and physical speed control treatments. A 40 km/h speed limit can be applied if the average of current mean speeds on all relevant streets in a built-up precinct is not more than 50 km/h. Relevant streets are considered to be any street longer than 200 metres, including those with existing high-level physical speed control treatments. It excludes streets that will have new high-level physical speed control treatments when the speed limit is lowered, or streets that will retain the existing speed limit of 60 km/h. A precinct in which a 40 km/h speed limit is planned should have a clear boundary as far as is practicable. Such an area would generally be bounded by arterial roads, other major traffic routes retaining a higher speed limit, or physical or geographic features which restrict the movement of traffic, such as railway corridors, parks and waterways. The guide recognises that differing land uses in a precinct may require some areas to be excluded from the 40 km/h speed limit. Signs indicating the speed limit are required at the boundaries of the precinct, both for drivers entering and leaving the precinct. Appropriate signs should be installed at every entry and exit point and repeater speed limit signs are required at approximately 250 metre intervals. Physical speed control treatments that may be installed within 40 km/h precincts include:



whole of street treatments such as Watts profile or flat top road humps and angled slow points



point location treatments such as roundabouts, driveway links and driveway entries when they break a street into sections of 200 m or less in length



parallel slow points



perimeter thresholds.

In order for an area to be approved as a 40 km/h precinct, community consultation must be undertaken. A questionnaire survey must be completed, with a minimum level of support of 66% from those responding to the survey being achieved. A minimum of 30% of the community must respond to the survey to ensure a reasonably representative sample of the community is obtained.

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2.2.4

Western Australia

Application To improve pedestrian safety, Western Australian Main Roads is trialing the use of a variable speed zone along Beaufort Street, Mount Lawley, commencing in August 2009. Along Beaufort Street there is a mix of local businesses, a hotel and shopping centre precinct. During peak periods of pedestrian activity, the speed limit along the road is reduced to 40 km/h while outside these periods the speed limit is returned to 60km/h. The pedestrian volumes during peak periods have not been defined. Variable speed limit signs were installed along Beaufort Street and along side streets, on the approach to Beaufort Street. The hours of operation of the 40 km/h speed limit are:



Sunday to Thursday: 7:30am – 10:00pm



Friday and Saturday: 7:30am – 1:00am.

The trial is scheduled to run for 18 months. Guideline:

None yet available

Western Australian Main Roads have yet to develop guidelines for the application of 40 km/h speed limits in areas of high pedestrian activity.

2.2.5

Queensland

Application As part of a review of pedestrian safety, a 40 km/h speed limit was introduced in the Brisbane CBD on the following roads in 2009:



streets between Ann Street and Alice Street



streets between North Quay and Boundary Street



George Street



Roma Street



Tank Street



Herschell Street



Makerston Street.

In 2007, a 40 km/h speed limit was introduced in Fortitude Valley on Friday and Saturday nights, reflecting the high pedestrian activity in this precinct. The level of pedestrian activity during the periods the reduced speed limit applies has not been defined. Guideline:

None yet available

Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads have yet to develop guidelines for the application of a 40 km/h speed limit in areas of high pedestrian activity.

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2.2.6

Australian Jurisdiction Summary

All Australian jurisdictions which have implemented a 40 km/h speed limit schemes, with the exception of South Australia, require undefined high levels of pedestrian activity generated by shopping centres to warrant the implementation of a 40 km/h scheme. The South Australian selection criteria are not based on land use, not pedestrian activity, per se. The RTA also considers other land uses, such as entertainment, health, community and recreational facilities when considering the application of a 40 km/h speed limit, however of relevance to this project, these land uses located on their own do not warrant the installation of a 40 km/h scheme. In Victoria and Western Australia, where 40 km/h speed zones are applied on a part time basis, variable electronic signage is recommended with back-up static signs identifying the time periods for the reduced speed zone. Of the Australian jurisdictions that have implemented a 40 km/h speed limit, the minimum length of road where a 40 km/h speed limit can be applied is between 200 and 400 metres. No Australian jurisdiction defines or benchmarks the level of pedestrian activity thresholds as a selection criterion. Enforcement is discussed briefly in the RTA guidelines only. The guideline states that police will enforce the 40 km/h speed limit in the same way that they enforce the 50 and 60 km/h speed zones. Consideration of the impact of a reduced speed limit on traffic flows and travel times are not specifically discussed or considered in any of the guidelines produced by the road authorities. However, the information sheet produced by Main Roads Western Australia notes that travel times may be impacted only slightly (less than 30 seconds); this trial is on a fixed road length of approximately 800 m, which permits a reasonable estimation of the impact to be made. It should be noted that specific consideration of cyclists is not included in any of the Australian jurisdictions guidelines. As mentioned previously, pedestrians and cyclists are considered to have a similar level of vulnerability with respect to impacts by motor vehicles in a crash. Therefore the affects of any reduction in traffic speeds will result in similar levels of risk reduction and crash severity outcomes for both road user groups.

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17 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

3 ACT Road Safety Strategy At a local level, the ACT Government has in place the following road safety policy documents:



ACT Road Safety Strategy 2007-2010



ACT Road Safety Action Plans 2007-2008 and 2009-2010.

A review of these strategic and action planning documents was undertaken to identify if a reduced speed zone around shopping centres and community facilities is consistent with the road safety philosophy in the ACT. In summary, it is evident from these documents that the ACT is well placed and in a supportive position to consider a targeted lower speed zone such as a 40 km/h speed limit. ACT Road Safety Strategy 2007 - 2010 The ACT Road Safety Strategy was prepared by the Office of Transport in the ACT Department of Territory and Municipal Services in 2007 and outlines the road safety strategy for the period from 2007 to 2010. The strategic goals contained in the Road Safety Strategy are: SG1

Road trauma rates continue to be reduced despite increases in population and travel

SG2

The community shares the responsibility for road safety

SG3

Road safety coordination and support arrangements are improved.

These strategic goals give rise to a set of six strategic objectives that reflect safe systems principles and thus align the ACT with the national road safety strategy. The strategic goals considered relevant to this project are: 

Safer speeds



Safer roads and roadsides



Safer road users and safer behaviours



Improved coordination and consultation processes.

To assist delivering on these strategic objectives, the Road Safety Action Plan has been developed. Actions from the 2007 - 2008 Plan that are considered relevant to lower speed zones as considered in this report include:



review the appropriateness of speed limits for particular lengths of roads as and when required



review the current arrangements for speed limit signage, including the possible use of pavement markings



investigate ways to counter the public perception of enforcement only being ‘revenue raising’



ensure new road projects and engineering treatments address the safety of all road users including motorists, pedestrians, motorcyclists and cyclists



examine ‘low cost’ treatments for sites that do not warrant major engineering solutions and implement improvements as part of the Minor New Works Program

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

highlight community responsibility in all road safety awareness campaigns



develop an awareness campaign to encourage motorists to share the road with other road users



develop and implement public education campaigns on cycling and pedestrian safety issues



ensure new road projects and engineering treatments address pedestrians and cyclists safety.

The recently released Road Safety Action Plan 2009 – 2010 contains some additional actions that are considered supportive and relevant to targeted lower speed zones:



contribute to the development of a national speed management strategy to inform future ACT speed management initiatives.



seek the community’s views on reducing speed zones around shopping and community facilities, and provide a report to the ACT Legislative Assembly.



continue to monitor interstate best practice in relation to, and if appropriate, commence implementation of the use of variable speed limits:



develop, implement and maintain consultation processes to engage the community on ACT road safety issues.

A strong focus on speed management is in line with national developments. The ACT Road Safety Action Plan for 2009 and 2010 notes that a national best practice speed management strategy is being developed and this includes the consideration of speed on the safety of vulnerable road user groups such as pedestrians and cyclists. As mentioned previously, based on the road safety philosophy exhibited by these strategic level documents, the ACT is well placed to consider and apply reduced speed zones in areas of high pedestrian and cyclist activity, such as around shopping centres and community facilities. In preparation of this, clear guidelines are required to assist identifying roads that are considered most suitable and will likely derive the greatest benefit from such an initiative. The remainder of this report seeks to develop guidelines for reduced speed zones in areas where high pedestrian activity occurs, drawing on the experience and application that has occurred elsewhere in Australia.

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4 Considerations for Introducing 40 km/h Speed Limits 4.1 Introduction This chapter discusses key heads of consideration that should be included in a model guideline for implementing a 40 km/h speed limit, in the ACT. The primary objective of a reduced speed limit around shopping centres and community facilities is to improve conditions for vulnerable road users, in particular pedestrians and cyclists. As discussed earlier in the report, minimising harm to road users by reducing crash risk and the severity outcome is in line with the safe systems approach, a nationally adopted principle and key component of the ACT Road Safety Strategy. However, it is not feasible for all roads where pedestrians and cyclists may frequent to have a reduced speed limit applied. There will be a greater level of compliance with speed limits if motorists believe the signposted speed limit has credibility by being is appropriately applied and suitable for the prevailing road and traffic environment. For these reasons consideration must be given to what an appropriate speed limit is for a particular road environment. There is a range of heads of consideration that determine if a speed limit is or is not appropriate for general application to roads. The same approach is required for targeted applications such as reduced speed limits around shopping centres and community facilities.

4.2 Current Conditions in the ACT 4.2.1

Reduced Speed Limits

The ACT already has a precedent for the application of reduced speed limits. While the default urban speed limit is currently 50km/h, a 40 km/h speed limit is currently applied, on a part-time (i.e. school days and school hours only) basis, in school zones and around child care centres. There is a clear purpose behind the creation of 40 km/h school zones and a firm connection with a specific road environment, which is to protect and enhance the (road) safety of child pedestrians around their school/road environment. There are also 40 km/h zones in place in the ACT in other specific precincts not under the direct control of Roads ACT, including the Canberra Hospital, Calvary Hospital, Australian National University and University of Canberra. In general, these zones have also been implemented to protect and enhance the safety of pedestrians, although no specific guidelines appear to have been adopted. The concept of reduced speed zones associated with other vulnerable road user groups in association with alternate land-uses is therefore not a foreign one in the ACT. However, the consideration for applying them to other road environments will include different factors with alternate parameters to those that apply to 40 km/h speed limits at school zones.

4.2.2

Shopping Facilities Hierarchy

In the ACT shopping facilities are typically clustered along local or collector roads and are generally bounded by arterial roads. A defined hierarchy of shopping facilities exists, which is classified into the following three types:

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

Town centres: are the focal points for higher order retail functions, commercial services, office and community facilities.



Group centres: provide the opportunity for major weekly shopping and for the location of retail and personal services requiring a catchment larger than that of a local centre, but smaller than that of a town centre.



Local centres: are provided to meet the day-to-day needs of consumers in the suburb in which the centre is located

Each level of shopping and commercial facility will generate and attract a level of pedestrian and cyclist activity, although clearly the volume may vary considerably. The benefits of lower speed traffic to vulnerable road user groups have been demonstrated and therefore a reduced speed limit will have safety benefits for pedestrians and cyclists within town, group and local centres.

4.3 Criteria for Assessment The purpose of developing assessment criteria is to provide a framework for implementing 40 km/h speed zones in a structured, balanced, consistent, defensible and transparent manner. In consideration of the approach by other road authorities; in view of the road safety philosophy adopted by the ACT and considering the purpose for using lower speed limits (i.e. to improve the safety of vulnerable road users), the key areas of consideration for implementing a 40 km/h speed limit should include:



land use



pedestrian/cyclist activity



hours of operation



road environment (i.e. the function of the road, traffic mix, speed regime etc.).

Figure 4.1: Criteria for considering 40 km/h HPAZ

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21 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 These key areas of consideration are discussed in more detail in the following sections.

4.3.1

Land Use

The land-uses under consideration for this study are shopping centres and community facilities. These land-uses may occur separately or they may be located in relatively close proximity and may be considered to form a single precinct. The proximity of each land-use to residential areas and other pedestrian/cycling generators will influence the level of pedestrian and cycling activity that interacts with vehicle traffic. Therefore, these factors may influence the extent of the 40 km/h precinct boundary but not the fundamental consideration of whether a 40 km/h speed limit is appropriate or not. For this reason, although criteria/guidelines for the assessment of 40 km/h speed limits may be developed, ultimately the application of this road safety management strategy should be taken on a case by case basis. Shopping centres The level of pedestrian or cyclist activity along a road is largely dependent on and heavily influenced by the surrounding land-uses. Shopping centres typically generate significant pedestrian volumes and often have reasonably well establish pedestrian facilities, and to a lesser extent possibly cycling facilities. Locations that may be most appropriate for the introduction of a 40 km/h speed limit are those where there is retail and commercial development with high levels of pedestrian/cyclist movements along footpaths and along and across the roads servicing the area. Shopping centres in the ACT are typically arranged offline and not along busy roadways and therefore may be better suited to the establishment of 40 km/h precincts, rather than applying a 40 km/h speed limit along the length of individual streets. The development of 40 km/h precincts will provide a greater level of consistency of speed zoning for motorists and may be easier to signpost or demarcate than if selectively applied to individual streets. This notwithstanding, there may be situations where the safety of pedestrians and cyclists will be enhanced by a restricting reduced speed limits to single or a few number of streets only. Community Facilities Community facilities are considered an appropriate land-use to include in the consideration of reduced speed limits; however, no specific assessment criteria relating to community facilities, as a unique land-use are suggested. Community facilities, as a land-use, cover a broad and mixed range of activities. In themselves community facilities may not generate large numbers of pedestrians nor generate activity over an extended period of time. For these reasons none of the Road Authorities in Australia that have developed guidelines for 40 km/h in areas of high pedestrian activity areas recommend a reduced speed limit around community facilities in isolation. Other treatments, such as pedestrian crossings, may be more suitable to cater for pedestrian movements in the vicinity of community facilities. It is recommended that community facilities be considered when setting the boundaries of 40 km/h precincts that may be initially established in association with a near-by shopping centre.

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22 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

4.3.2

Pedestrian/cyclist activity

Of those Australian jurisdictions that apply a 40 km/h speed limit in areas of high pedestrian (or cyclist) activity, none state a minimum level of pedestrian activity as a restriction to implement a reduced speed limit. Some guidance may be provided by considering other pedestrian related road safety facilities. In AS 1742.10 – 1990 ‘Manual of uniform traffic control devices, Part 10: Pedestrian control and Protection’, pedestrian (zebra) crossings generally should not be installed unless:



In two separate one hour periods of a typical weekday, there are no fewer than 60 pedestrians crossing the roadway within close proximity to the site (generally within 15 to 30 m); and



at least 600 vehicles pass the site; and



the product of the number of pedestrians per hour and vehicles in the same hour exceeds 90,000.

Given the lack of pedestrian flow criteria used by other Australian jurisdictions, this pedestrian crossing warrant could reasonably be used as a selection criterion for 40 km/h speed zones. Caution, however, is recommended. This warrant approach is not necessarily in keeping with the safe systems approach on two points. Firstly, the pedestrian (zebra) crossing criteria relates to a point along a road length, as evidenced by the requirement that the pedestrian activity be ‘generally within 15 to 30 m’. The nature of pedestrian activity in the areas generally present in town, group and local centre precincts may be more dispersed than is considered appropriate for the provision of pedestrian (zebra) crossings. Secondly, a reduced speed limit could provide a valid road safety outcome for the most vulnerable road user group even where there may not be sufficient pedestrians observed under this warrant approach to justify a reduced speed limit. For the purposes of promoting consideration of this particular assessment criterion, the following approach is suggested: 1. Figures defining suitable ranges of pedestrian activity (for example high, medium and low) are developed for use as a relative ranking mechanism rather than as pass or fail style criteria. 2. The level of pedestrian activity is taken on a road by road basis across a precinct to assist to establish the boundaries of a reduced speed limit. 3. The improvement of pedestrian and cyclist safety should be the over-riding objective of the evaluation of a road or precinct for inclusion in a reduced speed limit strategy. The term high pedestrian activity, as used by other road authorities, may be better used to prioritise the consideration and application of a reduced speed limit strategy. Other criteria may be used to determine whether a location (road or precinct) is suitable for this form of road safety action.

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4.3.3

Hours of Operation

Like school zones, 40 km/h high pedestrian activity zones may be suitable to operate either on a part-time basis or applied as a full-time reduced speed zone. Advantages exist for both timeframes and will depend very much on the prevailing land use and time of pedestrian activity. It is clear from practice in other jurisdictions; the hours of operation are selected to target the times when the peak pedestrian activity occurs. This maximises safety and provides a measure of self enforcement, minimising drivers feeling the reduced speed limit is in appropriate. Part time operation would be applied most appropriately at locations where there is limited or no significant pedestrian activity outside the prevailing shopping/business hours. In these situations, a review of the crash history may assist to define the hours of operation for the 40 km/h speed limit. Again, however, caution is recommended. Data for pedestrian/cyclist related crashes can significantly under report the actual occurrence of traffic incidents and will not identify nearmisses, which can be an indicator of safety issues for vulnerable road users.

4.3.4

Road environment

Road environment is a broad term to describe the physical and operational aspects of a road. Included are road hierarchy and function, the existing speed limit, the speed profile of the traffic stream, the traffic profile (i.e. number and type of vehicles) and the length of the road being considered. Roads in the ACT are classified based on the predominant function of a road and to the extent that they serve the two basic purposes of the road network, i.e. the movement of traffic and access to adjoining property. The road classifications used are:



arterial roads



major collector roads



minor collector roads



access streets.

The function of a road is an important factor in determining whether a 40 km/h reduced speed limit is appropriate or not, since the primary purpose of the reduced speed limit is to lower the speed of vehicles to levels that are not life threatening to pedestrians and cyclists. There is a greater likelihood of compliance with a signposted speed limit when motorists understand and believe the limit is appropriate. This in turn is influenced by the road environment, including the level and type of development along a road. A 40 km/h speed limit is more appropriately applied to minor collector roads and access streets, than major collector and arterial roads. Major collector and arterial roads are generally key travel routes which have higher speed limits, with the movement of traffic being the predominant function. Due to this, creating a road environment that encourages motorists to drive at a reduced speed limit may be difficult and hence they are not as suitable for a 40 km/h speed limit. The road environment is therefore an important factor in considering a reduced speed zone and this includes speed profile of the traffic stream.

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24 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

4.4 Signs, Markings and Engineering Works A certain level of infrastructure is required to support the application of speed limits in any road environment. This is particularly the case when a reduction in the speed regime occurs; the type and level of remedial works will depend on how well the new speed limit matches the existing road environment, the function of the road and previous speed profile of the traffic stream. A range of engineering treatments are available to support the creation of a 40 km/h precinct with many drawn from Local Area Traffic Management (LATM) schemes.

4.4.1

Signage

The type of signage will depend on the application (time) and extent (road or precinct) of the lower speed zone. As a minimum, speed limit signage should be installed at the boundary of the 40 km/h precinct. Repeater speed limit signs should be installed within the 40 km/h zone, at a maximum interval of 500 metres for each direction of travel. At areas where the 40 km/h speed limit operates on a part time basis, signage options are:



static signs with times displayed



a pair of electronic variable speed limit (VSL) signs.

The installation and operational costs of each type vary considerably. For VSL signs issues of power supply, capital and maintenance costs and the need for ‘back up’ signs in the event of a failure must be considered. To increase driver awareness of the reduced speed limit, some jurisdictions install gateway signs advising of the reduced speed zone (40 km/h). This gateway signing also provides an opportunity to advise motorists of the reason for the reduced speed limit, i.e. that the area is a high pedestrian activity area, Figure 4.2. Simpler ’40 Area’ signs may be used where a lower visual impact may be required, Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.2: Example gateway entry sign (static)

Figure 4.3: Alternate '40 Area' sign scheme (static)

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25 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

4.4.2

Pavement Markings

For locations where the 40 km/h speed limit applies on a full time basis, pavement markings are suggested at each entry/exit gateway. Pavement markings provide a clear indication of the commencement of the reduced speed limit that a motorist is almost unable to miss. Standard numerals indicating ‘40’ (and the prevailing higher speed limit – 50 or 60 - for traffic lanes exiting the precinct are suggested. At locations where the reduced speed limit operates only part-time the pavement markings should not be used. The minimum signs and pavement markings required are illustrated in Figure 4.4. It should be noted that additional, backup signs would typically be installed if VSL signs are used. Additional works and treatments for the model 40 km/h precinct are discussed further in Chapter 6.

Figure 4.4: Signs and pavement markings - full-time/part-time 40 km/h HPAZ

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26 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

4.4.3

Traffic Calming Measures

There may be a need for physical traffic calming measures to be installed to reinforce to motorists that a reduced driving speed limit regime is in place and thus gain greater levels of compliance. To determine if traffic calming measures are required, speed surveys should be undertaken to identify the prevailing speed profile where a 40 km/h speed limit is proposed. Traditionally, the 85th percentile speed has been used as a determining criterion for such measures to be applied, i.e. LATM schemes would be developed when the 85th percentile traffic speed exceeds the signposted/default speed limit (i.e. generally 50 km/h). However, under the safe systems approach this measure of speed profiling will not necessarily maximise the safety for pedestrians and cyclists and the use of 85th percentile speed is no longer favoured by most road authorities as ‘…a key factor in speed limit setting’ Austroads (2008a). South Australia’s 40 km/h Precinct Speed Limit traffic control standard identifies the criteria for speed management is the average of the mean speed of the roads within the proposed 40 km/h precinct. Using mean speeds will likely result in more locations requiring remedial works to be developed to support the reduced speed limit. The range of traffic calming measures typically used in LATM schemes and that has relevance for reduced speed limit precincts are illustrated in Table 4.1. The installation of threshold treatments at the gateways to the 40 km/h precincts is recommended to clearly define the start of the reduced speed limit precinct. Raised intersection thresholds may provide additional pedestrian safety measures. The traffic calming measures should be designed in accordance with the Austroads Guide to Traffic Management, Part 8: Local Area Traffic Management and have regard to the Australian Standard AS1742.13 Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices – Local Area Traffic Management.

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27 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 Table 4.1: Typical speed management treatments A. Raised threshold

B. Channelisation

Source: RTA Sharing the Main Street C. Footpath and kerb extensions

Source: Austroads GTM Part 8 D. Staggered carriageway

Source: Google Maps

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28 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 E. Installation of medians

Source: Austroads GTM Part 8 F. Raised Intersection

4.5 Impact on Travel Time Research by Archer (2008) into the impact of a reduced speed limit on traffic performance has shown a relatively minor impact on average travel times, as discussed previously. Possible traffic delays noted by Main Roads Western Roads by the trial of a 40 km/h speed limit were low, estimated at less than 30 seconds over the length of the trial road section. In relation to the ACT, the nature of centres where a reduced speed limit is likely to be applied is such that the impact on travel times is expected to be negligible. This is due to the shopping centres and community facilities in the ACT being typically located offline from main traffic thoroughfares. Consequently the traffic generally affected by a 40 km/h speed limit will primarily be seeking to access the shopping centres, community facilities and carparking areas contained within a defined precinct, rather than the commuter traffic by-passing the town/group/local centres. This is reinforced by the assessment criteria, which limits 40 km/h reduced speed limits to roads of a minor collector or local roads status, which, again do not and should not function as main traffic thoroughfares. Table 4.2 illustrates the effect of a 40 km/h travel speed limit on a compliant driver along a 500 metre length of road that may previously have had either a 50 or 60 km/h speed limit applied. The travel time and difference for a 30 km/h travel speed is provided as a further point of comparison with 40 km/h for information.

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29 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 Table 4.2: Travel time comparison over 500 metre length Travel speed (km/h) 30 40 50 60

Travel time (seconds) 60 45 36 30

 time (seconds)1 +15 -9 -15

Note 1: change in travel times as compared to 40 km/h travel speed

It should be noted that the above figures assume a consistent travel speed occurs over the 500 metre length. In a real world situation travel speeds are likely to vary due to congestion, road geometry etc. and the change in travel time will alter accordingly.

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30 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

5 Elements for a Model Guideline This chapter sets out the key information that should be included in a guideline for introducing reduced speed (40 km/h) limits in the ACT. The information is compiled based on the review of similar practices around Australia and taking into account relevant road safety research findings as discuss previously. A guideline can not provide for every circumstance likely to be experienced. The context for any guideline is to provide practitioners with useful information and guidance so the measures can be applied consistently across the ACT.

5.1.1

Land Use and Pedestrian Flows

Locations which may be appropriate for the introduction of a 40 km/h speed limit are those where there are:



high levels of pedestrian movements



retail and commercial development, which meets the minimum length as set out in Table 5.1. Table 5.1: Length of Retail and Commercial Development Criteria Shopping Centre Type Town Centre Group Centre Local Centre

Minimum length of retail and commercial development 400m 200m 200m

The minimum length for a 40 km/h speed zone for town centres is based on AS 1742.2-2008, Table 2.2, which states the desirable minimum length of a 40 km/h speed limit is 400 metres. The standard also states, ‘Speed zones which introduce a limit lower than the generally prevailing limits should be related specifically to the section of road where the circumstances warrant the lower limit’. Due to the lower concentration of shopping facilities at group and local centres, the minimum length of retail and commercial development is reduced to 200 metres. This is in line with the minimum length for 40 km/h school zones, as stated in AS 1742.2-2008, again in Table 2.2.

5.1.2

40 km/h Precincts

In order to create a 40 km/h precinct at locations where the selection criteria is met, the surrounding roads should also be considered for application of the reduced speed limit, even if the length of development is too short to satisfy the selection criteria. If there is retail and commercial development or a public transport interchange along the shorter roads, the application of the 40 km/h speed limit should be considered. Any roads where there is significant pedestrian activity should be included in the 40 km/h precinct. The presence of community facilities may also influence the boundaries of 40 km/h precincts, if they are situated near a shopping centre.

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31 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

5.1.3

Hours of Operation

The reduced speed limit can be applied on a part-time basis to reflect the dominant pedestrian/cyclist periods. Reflecting the typical spread of trading hours in the ACT and to provide a measure of standardisation across the ACT, it is suggested that part-time applications of the reduced speed limit should be as follows:



8:00am to 6:00pm Saturday to Thursday;



8:00am to 10:00pm Friday

At locations where land uses generate significant pedestrian volumes, outside of normal shopping hours, such as restaurants or entertainment and licensed premises, the reduced speed limit may apply on a 24 hour basis. The pedestrian crash history may also provide an indication of the hours of operation of the 40 km/h speed limit. At locations where a significant number of pedestrian crashes have occurred outside typical shopping hours, consideration should be given to the introduction of the reduced speed limit on a 24 hour basis.

5.1.4

Signage

At locations where the 40 km/h speed limit operates on a 24 hours basis, the following signage, in accordance with AS 1742.4, shall be installed.



Entry signs Speed Limit AREA (R4-10) signs shall be placed to face traffic entering the zone. These signs shall be positioned a sufficient distance from any intersection to be readily seen and noticed by drivers after they have turned from the intersecting street.



Exit signs END Speed Limit AREA (R4-11) signs shall be placed to face traffic leaving the zone. These signs shall be placed at the same location as entry signs but facing the opposite direction.

It is recommended that both entry and exit signs are ‘B’ size and placed on both sides of the roadway. The entry and exit signs Speed Limit AREA, R4-10 and R4-11 respectively, are shown in Figure 5.1.

R4-10 R4-11 Figure 5.1: 40 km/h Area Signs

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32 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 As an option for 40 km/h precinct entry gateway signage, the high pedestrian activity sign face, could be added to the 40 AREA sign in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.2: High Pedestrian Activity Sign Face Repeater signs (R4-1) should be installed within the 40 km/h zone, at a maximum interval of 500 metres for each direction of travel.

Figure 5.3: 40 km/h Repeater Sign At locations where the reduced speed limit operates on a part time basis, static signs (with time displayed) shall be used, Figure 5.4, or electronic variable speed limit (VSL) signs may be installed, Figure 5.5. Signs shall be located along all entry roads to the 40 km/h precinct, at the start of the 40 km/h zone. VSL signs should be located at the boundaries to the 40 km/h precinct with backup static signs in place for variable message signs. Backup and repeater signs shall be the same configuration as shown in Figure 5.4.

AREA 8AM – 6PM Figure 5.4: Static 40 km/h Area Signs for Part-time Limits

Figure 5.5: Variable Speed Limit Sign for Part-time Limits

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33 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

5.1.5

Pavement Markings

For locations where the 40 km/h speed limits apply on a full time basis, pavement marking could be installed. At locations where it operates part time only, pavement markings should not be used. At the boundaries of 40 km/h zones, pavements markings adjacent to speed limit signs may be installed, in accordance with AS 1742.4, to reinforce the reduced speed limit for drivers. The pavement markings should consist of elongated numerals, not less than 2.5 metres in length. No additional words or symbols shall be used. A separate set of numerals shall be placed in each traffic lane. On two-way roads, numerals should only be painted if there is a painted separation line and there is enough lateral separation between sets of numerals on opposite sides of the roadway to avoid them appearing as a single four or five digit number.

5.1.6

Traffic Calming Measures

To ensure motorist driving speeds are reduced to the 40 km/h signposted speed limit, additional traffic calming measures may be required. To determine if traffic calming measures are required, speed surveys on the roads where a 40 km/h speed limit is proposed should be undertaken. If the mean speed is greater than 50km/h, traffic calming measures should be implemented. The purpose of the traffic calming measures is to create conditions where drivers drive at 40 km/h because of the general nature of the road environment. The traffic calming measures may include:



raised threshold



channelisation



footpath and kerb extensions



staggered carriageway



installation of medians



raised Intersection.

The installation of threshold treatments at the gateways to the 40 km/h precincts is recommended, to clearly define the start of the reduced speed limit precinct. Raised intersection thresholds may provide additional pedestrian safety measures. The traffic calming measures should be designed in accordance with Austroads Guide to Traffic Management, Part 8: Local Area Traffic Management and AS 1742.13.

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34 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

5.2 Implementation Process The main steps of the implementation process are shown in Figure 5.6. The tasks are described in the sections below.

Figure 5.6: Implementation Process

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35 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

5.3 Project Evaluation and Monitoring After the installation of 40 km/h speed limit in areas of high pedestrian activity, the project should be reviewed and evaluated. Aspects which should be reviewed include:



signage



traffic calming measures



gateway treatments



service vehicle access.

The aim of the review is to determine if there is adequate signage indicating the reduced speed limit and hours of operation (if a 40 km/h speed limit is applied on a part time basis) and if the changes to the road network to encourage motorists to drive at the reduced speed are effective. After the review, additional signage should be installed and modification of traffic calming measures should be undertaken where required.

5.4 Enforcement The 40 km/h speed limit should be enforced by the police in the same way as all other speed limits in the ACT.

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36 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

6 Model 40 km/h Schemes for the ACT Indicative 40 km/h speed limit schemes have been prepared to assist illustrating how they may apply to the different levels of shopping precincts and road environments. The schemes illustrated are models only and do not represent any specific town or group centre location in the ACT. In accordance with the project brief, the indicative cost estimates have been prepared to reflect the quantum of cost for implement the model schemes illustrated. The range of works is indicative only and a specific location may require additional or less works than indicated.

6.1.1

Typical Costs

The typical costs used for the various engineering works required to implement a 40 km/h scheme in areas of high pedestrian activity is shown below:



signs - $150 per installation



line marking - $1.30 per metre for water-based paint; $11 per metre for long-life paint



road hump - $30,000



kerb & gutter - $118 per lineal metre



wombat crossing - $48,000 (including $8,000 for additional lighting in the vicinity of the crossing).

These rates are as supplied by Roads ACT and are for indicative purposes only. The affect of matters such as adjustment of services can significantly affect the actual cost of a project. Additionally, the cost of consulting with the local community and stakeholders also needs to be taken into consideration. The costs of consultation will depend on the extent of the consultation and the size of the community which is being consulted.

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37 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

6.1.2

Model Scheme

In order to understand the scope of works and indicative costs associated with the implementation of a 40 km/h speed limit precinct, model town and group centre schemes have been prepared with a typical scope of treatments identified. Model Town Centre Scheme A model scheme for a typical town centre where a 40 km/h speed limit is introduced is shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1: Typical Town Centre Model Scheme Layout There are a mix of land uses including retail, industrial and office along the roads in this town centre. The main shopping facilities are concentrated along Local Roads 1 to 4. The length of retail and commercial land use along these local roads is approximately 500 metres and there is high pedestrian activity along and across these roads also. Therefore, the criteria for the application of a 40 km/h speed limit are generally satisfied.

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38 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 The next step is to consider the roads surrounding Local Roads 1 to 4, where there is retail and commercial development. As the land uses along the local roads to the west of the collector road generate significant pedestrian volumes, a 40 km/h speed limit should also be implemented along these roads. The boundary of the proposed 40 km/h precinct is shown in red. It should be noted that the 40 km/h speed limit is not applied to the arterial or collector roads in this instance since these are higher order roads with limited and/or controlled pedestrian access. The indicative cost of installing the remedial engineering works associated with the proposed 40 km/h speed limit for this model town centre scheme would be in the range of $220,000. It is assumed in this costing that no LATM facilities are present in the town centre. Therefore the cost may be significantly less if new LATM measures are not required or fewer treatments are necessary due to the existing level of infrastructure being deemed satisfactory. A break down of the works and costs is provided in Table 6.1. Table 6.1: Model Scheme Costs – Town Centre Engineering Unit Cost1 Works Sign (static) $150 Road Hump $30,000 Wombat $48,000 Crossing Linemarking $11/ m Kerb and gutter $118/ m Total 1. Unit rates as supplied by Roads ACT

Number Required 30 5 1 500 100

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Total $4,500 $150,000 $48,000 $5,500 $11,800 $219,800

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39 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 Model Group Centre Scheme A model scheme for a typical group centre where a 40 km/h speed limit is introduced as shown below.

Figure 6.2: Typical Group Centre Model Scheme Layout There are a mix of land uses present in this group centre including retail, restaurants, fast food outlets and bars. The main shopping facilities are concentrated along Local Road 1. The length of retail and commercial land use along Local Road 1 is approximately 250 metres and there is high pedestrian activity along this road. The criteria for the application of a 40 km/h speed limit are generally satisfied. The next step is to consider the extent of the 40 km/h precinct as the land uses along the roads surrounding Local Road 1 generate significant pedestrian volumes. It is reasonable to consider extending the 40 km/h precinct to include the community facility, thus providing improved safety and a greater level of consistency for speed limits along Collector Road 1. The resulting boundary of the proposed 40 km/h precinct is shown in red. Note the reduced speed limit does not apply in this instance to the arterial roads since these are higher order roads with limited and/or controlled pedestrian access. The indicative cost of installing the remedial engineering works associated with the proposed 40 km/h speed limit for this model town centre scheme would be in the range of $147,000.

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40 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009 It is assumed in this costing that no LATM facilities are present in the town centre. Therefore the cost may be significantly less if new LATM measures are not required or fewer treatments are necessary due to the existing level of infrastructure being deemed satisfactory. A break down of the works and costs is provided in Table 6.2. Table 6.2: Model Scheme Costs – Group Centre Unit Cost1 Engineering Works Sign $150 Road Hump $30,000 Wombat $48,000 Crossing Linemarking $11/ m Kerb and gutter $118/ m Total 1. Unit rates as supplied by Roads ACT

Number Required 12 3 1 200 40

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Total $1,800 $90,000 $48,000 $2,200 $4,720 $146,720

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41 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

7 Conclusions and recommendations The introduction of reduced speed limits such as 40 km/h in areas of high pedestrian activity around, such as at shopping centres, will result in improved safety for pedestrians and cyclists. Other Australian states have developed guidelines that permit a review of specific locations to determine if a reduced speed limit is appropriate and how it should be applied to ensure consistency with speed zoning principles and to gain maximum levels of compliance from motorists. A draft guideline has been developed for the ACT as part of a consultation strategy to determine if 40 km/h reduced speed zones should be adopted in the Territory and the manner that it should be adopted. That is, do the stakeholders and community prefer full or part-time reduced speed zones or a combination of both that is able to be applied on a case by case basis. It is recommended this report and the draft guidelines be distributed for consultation and feedback with the ACT community and stakeholders. Following this consultation the level of support for the reduced speed limit in areas of high pedestrian activity can be determined and amendments to the guidelines may be considered to reflect the input of the community and stakeholders.

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42 Investigation to Reduce Speed Limits Around Shopping Centres and Community Facilities 001291-1 Final November 2009

8 References Archer, Fotheringham, Symmons and Corben 2008, ‘The Impact of Lowered Speed Limits in Urban and Metropolitan Areas‘, Monash University Accident Research Centre, Melbourne, Victoria Austroads 2008a, Guide to Road Safety Part 3: Speed Limits and Speed Management, by Austroads Road Safety Task Force, AGRS03/08, Austroads, Sydney, NSW Austroads 2008b, Guide to Traffic Management Part 8: Local Area Traffic Management, by P Damen, R Brindle & Christine Gan, AGTM08/08, Austroads, Sydney, NSW Austroads 2006, Guide to Road Safety Part 1: Road Safety Overview, by P Cairney, AGRS01/06, Austroads, Sydney, NSW Corben and Oxley 2006, ‘Emerging road safety philosophies and their Significance for Safe Walking’, International Conference on Walking and Liveable Communities, 7th, Melbourne, Australia Midson, K 2007, ‘Road Safety in Strip Shopping Centres,’ International Road Safety Conference, 3rd, Perth, Australia OECD, 2008, ‘Towards Zero ambitious Road Safety Targets and the Safe System Approach’, International Transport Forum, France Standards Australian, AS1742.4-2008, Manual of uniform traffic control devices - Speed controls, Sydney, NSW Standards Australia, AS1742.10-1999, Manual of uniform traffic control devices – Pedestrian control and protection, Sydney, NSW Woolley, Dyson and Taylor 2000, ‘Lower Urban Speed Limits – what are the pieces of the jigsaw telling us at this point in time’, Road Safety Research, Policing and Education Conference, Brisbane, Australia World Health Organisation 2008, Speed management: A road safety manual for decisionmakers and practitioners by Global Road Safety Partnership, Global Road Safety Partnership, Gevena, Switzerland

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