Sexual Trafficking in the United States: A Domestic Problem with Transnational Dimensions David R. Hodge
The trafficking of young women and children for prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation is one of the most significant human rights abuses in contemporary society. In keeping with the social work profession's commitment to social justice, this article examines the is.sue of sexual trafficking in the United States. The transnational scope of the problem is discussed along with the means that traffickers use to recruit, transport, and initiate victims from around the world into the sex industry in the United States. Some legislative responses to the problem are discussed, and a number of suggestions are offered to help social workers advocate on behalf of some of the most vulnerable and oppressed people in the global coniiiiunity. KEY WORDS: human rights; human trafficking; sexual trafficking; social justice
T
he social work profession is committed to social justice, particularly on behalf of vulnerable and oppressed individuals. This commitment is enumerated in the profession's Code of Ethics (NASW,2000) and its educational standards (Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards, 2001). As avowed in the NASW policy statement International Policy on Human Rights (NASW, 2003),"social workers must advocate for the rights of vulnerable people" and work to eliminate practices "that put any person's human rights in grave jeopardy" (pp. 212-213). Given the profession's value stance, it is perhaps surprising that the social work literature has featured little discussion of one of the most prominent contemporary human rights abuses—the modernday slave trade or human trafficking (Struhsaker Schatz & Furman, 2002). Trafficking entails the trade in human beings who are subsequently exploited for their organs, labor, or other services (United Nations, 2000). Over the course of the past decade, the global trade in human beings has increased significantly. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC] (2005), human trafficking has reached epidemic proportions. The largest subset of human trafficking is sexual trafficking—the trafFicking of young women and children for prostitution and other forms of sexual
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exploitation (Curtol, Decarii, Di Nicola, & Savona, 2004). Among those trafficked internationally, estimates indicate that approximately 50 percent are children and 70 percent to 80 percent are female (U.S. Department of State, 2004). Among females, roughly 70 percent are trafficked for prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation (U.S. Department of State, 2004). In addition to representing the largest component of human trafficking, sexual trafficking has grown dramatically over the past decade (Flowers, 2001; Kelly, 2004; Mon2im,2004; Struhsaker Schatz & Furman, 2002). This article seeks to increase readers' awareness and knowledge of sexual trafficking in the United States.Toward this end, the transnational nature of the problem is reviewed along with the role that organized crime plays in engineering the flow of young women and girls around the world. As part of this process, conmion strategies used to recruit and transport young women and children are discussed along with methods of initiation and exploitation in the sex industry. The article concludes by reviewing relevant policy responses, such as the Victims ofTrafFicking andViolence Protection Act, and suggesting some steps that might be taken to protect victiuis, prosecute traffickers, and prevent future occurrences of victimization. First, however, sexual trafficking is defined and domestic prevalence rates are discussed.
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SEXUAL TRAFFICKING: DEFINITION AND PREVALENCE RATES
United States apart from the wider global context. Each year,some 600,000 to 800,000 people are trafSexual trafficking has been defined in numerous ficked across international borders, some of whom ways {Aronowitz, 2004). The United States govwind up in the United States (U.S. Department ernment defines sex trafficking as "the recruitment, of State, 2004). Since the 1990s, sexual trafficking harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining has become increasingly transnational in character of a person for the purposes of a commercial sex (Erez, Ibarra, & McDonald, 2004).Young girls may act" (P.L. 106-386: §103 (9)). A commercia! sexual act be recruited in the Ukraine and trafficked through is defined as any sex act in which anything of value Russia, Germany, France,and Canada before ending is given or received by any person (P.L. 106-386: up in the United States (Estes & Weiner, 2001). §103 (3)). The State Department estimates that approxiTHE ROLE OF ORGANIZED CRIME mately 14,500 to 17,500 people are trafficked into The transnational movement in human beings is the United States annually (U.S. Department of State, facilitated by criminal networks. According to some 2004). An additional number are trafficked within estimates, human trafficking is the fastest growing the United States,although the government indicates area of organized crime (United Nations, 2002). In that trends in international trafficking are easier to a number of cases, the high profits and low risk have estimate than are trends in domestic trafficking. led existing crime syndicates to become involved in trafficking. In addition, formerly decentralized, Although the U.S. government estimates may loosely organized groups have evolved into complex, be more conservative than those provided by some organized networks of recruiters, transporters, and organizations, it is important to qualify the results. pimps (Monzini, 2004). Small, independent operaEstimating the number of individuals trafficked is tors still exist, perhaps particularly in the United difficult (Curtol et al., 2004). Many rape victims States (Raymond & Hughes, 2001). Organized do not report their victimization, and victims of crime, however, has increasingly dominated sexual trafficking may be even more reluctant to contact trafficking. authorities (McDonald, 2004). Many factors may foster this reluctance. For instance, victims may The sale of trafficked young women and girls believe that social services providers wall not take is very profitable (Zimmerman et al., 2003). After their claims seriously, that the police will charge narcotics and arms sales, trafficking is estimated to them for some offense, or that the authorities are be the largest source of revenue for organized crime unable to protect them from traffickers' reprisals (U.S. Department of State, 2004). A girl might be (Hughes & Denisova, 2001). Indeed, in some nakidnapped from a village in Nepal, trafficked to tions, police collude with traffickers, returning those India and sold for $1,000 (UNODC, 2005) and then who escape to their former exploiters in the sex or trafficked to the United States and sold for $20,000 prostitution industry. (UNODC, 2004) or more (Estes & Weiner, 2001). Consequently, because of the complexity involved Furthermore, women sold into the prostitution in making accurate assessments, prevalence estimates industry earn profits for their pimps for a number vary considerably (Flowers, 2001; McDonald, 2004; of years, unlike the profits earned from narcotics, Monzini, 2004). Similarly, as part of the shadow which are sold and used once.The vast majority of economy, our understanding of trafficking practices revenue generated by trafficked women remains in is still in its infancy. It is important to emphasize, the hands of pimps (UNODC, 2004). Many trafhowever, that no one questions the existence of ficked women retain Httle or none of the money the problem (McDonald,2004). Rather,the debate they earn in the sex industry (Monzini, 2004; Zimconcerns the magnitude of the problem and the merman et al., 2003). extent to which it is growing. INTERNATIONAL TRAFFICKING PATTERNS TRAFFICKING: A TRANSNATIONAL PHENOMENON
By definition,individuals trafficked into the United States originate from other nations. Accordingly, it is difficult to understand sexual trafficking in the
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The UNODC has attempted to quantify general patterns in international trafficking, mapping the flow from point of origin to point of destination (Monzini, 2004). In descending order, victims tend to be recruited most prominently Horn Asia, die
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former Soviet Union, Africa. Eastern Europe, and. to a lesser extent, Latin America. As this list implies, originating countries tend to be relatively unstable politically or economically disadvantaged. Such environmental factors make it easier for traffickers to recruit and transport women and children (Hughes & Denisova. 2001). For instance, in nations with weak institutions, officials can be bribed. Forged passports and travel documents for children can be obtained with relative ease (Monzini. 2004). Within these environments, traffickers often seek out the most vulnerable individuals. In addition to women living in poverty (Kelly, 2004). traffickers have targeted orphans and women with physical disabilities (Hughes, 2004a). young children (Flowers. 2001). those who are innumerate (Beyrer. 2001), illiterate (Aghatise, 2004). and socially deprived (Okonofua. Ogbomwan, Alutu, Kufre, & Eghosa. 2004). Such characteristics make it easier for traffickers to recruit, transport, and subsequently exploit women in destination countries. United Nations data indicate that after Italy the primary destination nation is the United States, followed by Germany and the Netherlands (Monzini, 2004). Desdnation countries tend to be wealthy industrialized nations that meet one of at least two criteria: (1) prostitution is legalized or broadly tolerated or (2) large sex industries exist (Hughes, 2000a). Prostitution is legal in Germany and the Netherlands (Hughes, 2000a) for example, and the child pornography industry in the United States is one of the biggest in the world (Flowers. 2001). It is demand in the sex industry that traffickers seek to supply (Hughes & Denisova, 2001). Few women choose to work in the sex industry when other options exist, and the turnover rate of women engaged in prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation is high. For example, many women suffer physical or mental breakdowns from engaging in unwanted sexual activity multiple times per day with strangers (Flowers, 2001; Zimmerman et al.. 2003). Women who are no longer sufficiently attractive to men or profitable for pimps are discarded. Consequently, replacements are needed frequently. Brothel owners.pornography producers, and pimps place orders for women and children that, in turn, are filled by traffickers. It is important to emphasize the general nature of these trafficking flows.To some extent, virtually every nation functions as a point of origin and destination (Monzini, 2004). Although the United
States is a top destination nation, a significant number of children are trafficked from the United States to other industriahzed nations with large sex industries, such as the Netherlands, Germany, and Japan. (Estes &Weiner.2001). Traffickers maximize their profits by moving individuals from region to region around the globe, supplying fresh product for the sex industry to market to buyers.To increase its market, the prostitution industry has sought to provide buyers with younger and younger females (Monzini, 2004). Estes and Weiner (2001) have estimated that in convention and tourist cides in the United States at least one-third of street-level prostitutes are children. Furthermore, on the basis of interviews with sexually exploited youths, they esdmated that perhaps 50 percent of those engaged in prosdtudon behind closed doors (for example, escort services) are under 18 years of age. In addition to recruiting younger girls, the prostitution industry has also sought to provide buyers with more choices in female bodies. Women from an increasingly wide range of ethnic and racial backgrounds are being offered to buyers (Monzini, 2004). In the United States, Estes and Weiner (2001) identified sexually exploited children from more than 40 different countries of origin, spanning the globe. RECRUITING YOUNG WOMEN AND CHILOREN
Although research on sexual trafficking is still in its infancy, some understanding is developing regarding recruitment and transportadon. In addition to some preliminary research conducted in the United States (Estes &c Weiner, 2001; Raymond & Hughes, 2001), researchers have explored various aspects of trafficking in Asia (Aronowitz, 2004), Southeast Asia (Beyrer, 2001). China (Zhao, 2003). Nigeria (Aghadse. 2004; Okonofua et al.,2004), the Ukraine (Hughes. 2000a), the former Soviet Union (Hughes, 2004a,2004b),andWestern Europe (Zimmerman et al., 2003). Although specific modes of recruitment vixy from locadon to locadon, these and other studies suggest that traffickers use four general strategies to recruit women and children into the sex industry (Curtol etal., 2004). False-Front Agencies First.employment,modeling,and marriage agencies are used to attract potendal victims. These organizations, which may or may not have a legidmate
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Once in the hands of traffickers, women may be subjected to various forms of emotional, psycholo^cal, and physical abuse.
illegal goods may be used to transport individuals to desdnation nations.
Families Living in Poverty Finally, recruiters may approach families or guardians hving in poverty and seek to purchase girls or young women. Recruiters may point out how the dimension, promise young women a better life in money might be used to help exisdng family memricher nadons such as the United States.The agencies bers while promising that their daughter will have allow traffickers to assess the marketability of appliaccess to a better hfe in a richer nadon. Although cants in the prosdtudon industry or even to attract untrue, such falsehoods can be convincing because buyers. Some marriage agencies, for instance, have of the pervasiveness of Western media. Many inposted pictures of girls as young as 10 or 12 years old dividuals in other nadons believe that the lavish on the Internet (Hughes, 2004a). Because vicdms are lifestyles portrayed on commercial programming deceived about the true nature of the organization, reflect the lives of common cidzens in the United they usually have no idea of the fate that awaits them States. Some parents suspect that their daughters once they arrive at their desdnation. are being recruited to work in prosdtudon. Movies Because women typically cannot afford the such as Pretty Woman, however, glamorize prosdtutransportation costs, they enter into an arrangement don to such an extent that parents can beheve that commonly called debt bondage. Traffickers agree to their daughters will have a better life in the sex pay the costs associated with transportation, which industry. the women agree to repay out of future earnings. It is not uncommon for women to be passed from Once in the hands of traffickers, women may be organization to organizadon in the process of reachsubjected to various forms of emodonal, psychoing a desdnadon country, incurring flirther debt logical, and physical abuse. For instance, a vicdm's with each exchange. passport may be held or her freedom of movement restricted.The purpose is to gradually induce a state in which the vicdm is dependent on the trafficker for Local Sex Industries her psychological and physical well-being (Aghadse, A second modality is to approach women already 2004; Zimmerman et al.. 2003). By establishing some engaged in prostitution. Women working in night degree of control over victims, traffickers are better clubs, for instance, may be approached and promised able to exploit women in the sex industry. higher earnings for doing similar work in wealthier nations. Women in this category are cognizant of VICTIMIZATION IN THE U.S. SEX INDUSTRY the general type of work they will be required to perform but are unaware of the slave-hke condiOnce in the United States, a variety of approaches tions in which they will be forced to work. As in are used to inidate young women and children into the previous method, debt bondage is used to cover the sex industry. Pornography is often used to break the costs of transportation, bribes, procuring false down defenses (Estes & Weiner, 2001; Raymond & passports for underage girls, and so forth.These two Hughes, 2001). Likewise, stripping often functions approaches appear to be the most common strategies as a bridge to prostitution. used to traffic young women and children into the Pornography is used to coerce vicdms into prosdUnited States (Estes & Weiner, 2001; Raymond & tudon.Victims may be asked to perform in pornogHughes. 2001). raphy as a way of paying off their debts. Traffickers may take pictures in which victims can be clearly identified and then threaten to reveal particularly Abduction degrading portrayals to family members (Raymond A third method used by traffickers is kidnapping. & Hughes, 2001). Victims without proper legal Those approached to work in the sex industry documentadon may be threatened with deportadon but who are unwilling to leave their country of or other legal consequences. Similarly, pimps may origin may be kidnapped. Similarly, unsuspecdng threaten the victim's family members with harm individuals who lack social ties may also be forc(Estes & Weiner, 2001). If the woman has children, ibly abducted (Estes & Weiner, 2001). Well-tested they may be seized as a form of collateral. routes used to smuggle narcodcs, arms, and other
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If threats and other strategies are unsuccessful, violence may be used to force victims into prostitution (Zimmerman et al., 2003). Women may be beaten,stabbed,raped,strangled,and even murdered in more extreme cases (Hughes, 2004a; Raymond & Hughes, 2001). After initiation, the violence often continues and is used as a form of punishment, a form of sexual gratification for pimps and buyers, and to isolate and humiliate women. From Initiation to Enslavement Victims often have little control over the location or the hours in which they will work (UNODC, 2004).Women may be held in isolated locations and moved frequently to new settings to provide fresh bodies for buyers looking for new sexual experiences (Raymonds^ Hughes, 2001). Quotas are also common.Women who fail to service enough men are commonly beaten or raped. Similarly, those trafficked tend to have little control regarding the sexual acts they will be required to perform for pimps and buyers. Young women and girls may be forced to engage in abusive and degrading sexual acts (Raymond, 2004). For example, women may be whipped and then urinated on while others stand by and watch (Raymond & Hughes, 2001). Children may be handcuffed and compelled to have sex with dogs and then forced to eat from dog food bowls and drink from toilets (Estes&Wemer,2001). The pornography business in the United States is extremely profitable (Hughes, 2000b). Although organized criminal networks typically refrain from trafficking children younger than nine years of age, an exception is made for very young children who are used in pornography (Estes & Weiner, 2001). Flowers (2001) reported that at least 264 different magazines feature children in sexually explicit acts. These magazines can be produced for 50 cents and sold for 20 times as much. Videotapes depict children being raped, tortured, and murdered (Flowers, 2001). Online Victimization The United States is also home to the Internet-based pornography business (Hughes, 2000b), a medium that has opened up new opportunities for traffickers to exploit women (Hughes,2003b; Long, 2004). Video conferencing technology allows real-time transmission of events to essentially anywhere in the world. One of the first uses of this technology
was the live transmission to buyers of girls being sexually abused (Hughes, 2000b). The Internet also fosters the exploitation of young women and girls in areas where prostitution is either legal or more hkely to be tolerated. Relative to the United States,Japan has more restrictive laws concerning pornography. In one operation that was uncovered, women were trafficked from Japan to Hawaii, where they were used to perform in live Internet sex shows targeted toward Japanese audiences (Hughes, 2002).The U.S.-based performances were broadcast in real time with buyers in Japan making requests for specific sexual acts over the Internet. In some instances, pimps may locate Internet sites in other nations, which have less restrictive laws.The resulting images can then be sold to customers in the United States, which represents the largest market for Internet pornography (Hughes, 2000b). One U.S. citizen traveled to Cambodia to set up a site titled "the rape camp," which featured trafficked "Asian sex slaves" who were gagged, bound, and blindfolded while being used in various sex acts (Hughes, 20()0b). Viewers could relay requests for sexual torture that would be frilfilled in real time. Although this particular site was shut down by Cambodian authorities after receiving widespread attention, others exist. For instance, one Russian-based site advertised itself as the "most violent rape site on earth" and featured an extensive selection of "violent rapes, ass rapes, mouth rapes, gang rapes, nigger rapes, torn vaginas, and tortured clits" (Hughes. 2002, p. 139). Several sites now use encryption technology to hide the ways in which young women and girls are exploited (Hughes, 2000b). The Cost to Women and Children The physical and psychological costs to women trafficked into the sex industry are substantial (Flowers, 2001; Raymond & Hughes, 2001; Zimmerman et al., 2003). As is the case with women who have been battered, raped, or sexually assaulted, broken bones and teeth, cuts, bruises, vaginal bleeding, and head injuries are common (Raymond & Hughes, 2001). The psychological costs may be even more pervasive. Many women experience shame, panic attacks, depression, low self-esteem,and posttraumatic stress disorder. It is not unconunon to encounter victims in their early 30s who are physically and emotionally disabled from working in prostitution (Estes & Weiner, 2001).
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These victims, lai^ely hidden from public view in the shadow economy of the sex industry, remain some of the most marginalized individuals in the United States. Furthermore, when they seek help, tbey are often treated as criminals by the authorities rather than as victims of sexual exploitation. Many victims of trafficking are essentially trapped in a catch-22 situarion, seeking to avoid the violence perpetrated by pimps on the one hand and arrest and incarceration by authorities on the other. More recently, however, some positive developments have occurred that may help victims escape from an existence frequently characterized by violence and fear. THE VICTIMS OF TRAFFICKING AND VIOLENCE PROTECTION ACT
Perhaps the most notable response to trafficking in the United States has been the passage of the Victims ofTrafficking andViolence Protection Act of 2000 {P.L. 106-386), which was amended in 2003 by the Traffic kingVictims Protection Reauthorization Act {P.L. 108-193). This statute explicitly recognizes that existing laws often fail to protect victims of trafficking and, paradoxically, often punish victims more severely than they do traffickers. Accordingly, the law stipulates that victims of severe trafficking should not be inappropriately penalized for unlawful acts committed as a result of being trafficked,such as using false documents, entering the country without documentation, or working without documentation {PL. 106-386). Tbis provision, at least in principle, removes one of the key threats that traffickers use to coerce young women and children into the sex industry. In addition, the statute created a special visa class designed to protect victims of severe forms of trafficking, which are defined as "sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained 18 years of age" (PL. 106-386; §103(8) (A)).These "T-visas" allow victims to remain in the United States to assist federal authorizes in the prosecution of trafficking offenses while providing victims with access to an expanded range of benefits and services, including access to the Witness Protection Program. After three years, permanent residency may be granted (Aronowitz, 2004). Although this legislation marks a significant advancement, it remains questionable as to whether
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victims will be able to access the promised services. At a minimum, victims must be identified and made aware of available services in order for them to be used. By addressing these and other areas, social workers can play a significant role in alleviating human suffering. Avenues for Advocacy One of the most diffictilt issues in providing services to victims of trafficking is their invisibility (Struhsaker Schatz & Furman, 2002). This invisibility is nurtured by traffickers, victims, and even some service providers. Traffickers deliberately seek out obscure venues to avoid detection. Victims often remain in the shadows because of the fear of arrest; reprisals from traffickers; or the fear that officials are corrupt, unconcerned, or aligned with the traffickers, as is the case in many countries from which victims originate. Service providers have also contributed to the invisibility by ignoring the plight of victims in pursuit of other agendas. For instance, some service providers have made deals with pimps in exchange for being allowed to disseminate condoms. In return, providers agree to ignore prostituted children and refrain from informing women about services that would enable them to escape prostitution. In the United States, nine- and 10-year-old trafficked girls, forced to service up to 35 men an hour in deplorable conditions, have been deliberately ignored by providers {Farley, 2004). Although HIV/STD prevention is an important concern, social workers have a legal, moral, and ethical responsibility to liberate victims from enslavement in the sex industry. Social workers must stand with women and children and not collude in their oppression. Once identified, the protection of victims must be a priority. To help identify and protect victims, social workers might consider participating in, or organizing, multidisciplinary teams. Such teams might include clergy and other community leaders with credibility among various ethnic and immigrant populations. In addition, local and federal law enforcement officials, immigration lawyers,and representatives from social service agencies might also be included.The goal is to bring together people likely to identify potential victims with individuals who can provide protective and rehabilitative services so that, once identified, victims are provided with seamless services. Some issues that collaborations might discuss include the dissemination of guides to help identify
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victims of trafficking (Hughes, 2003a), training programs Co sensitize frontline workers to sexual trafficking, and the implementation of comprehensive serviceframeworks(Roby, 2005). Such frameworks might include telephone help lines, emergency shelters, safe houses, and programs that focus on meeting victims' needs, including medical, educational, emotional, family, and economic needs. Many of these services are provided for in the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act. Officials, however, may be reluctant to certify victims so that they can obtain T-visas, cash, medical and social services, and so forth. Advocacy may he needed so that victims can obtain the resources necessary to rebuild their lives. Prosecution of Traffickers Another way to help protect women and children is to advocate for stricter penalties for traffickers and consistent enforcement of existing laws. One of the central reasons for the growth in sexual trafficking is the low risk associated with the practice (UNODC, 2004) .The penalties for trafficking inanimate objects such as narcotics and weapons typically exceed those for trafficking living human beings (Bertone, 2000; Raymond & Hughes, 2001). Women cannot be expected to testify against traffickers if the traffickers are released soon after arrest. Some laws designed to protect women and children from sexual exploitation already exist, but enforcement has been lacking. Obscenity laws, for example, prohibit Internet images that use women in bestiality and torture. Yet, prosecutions declined during the 1990s, even as exploitation of women and children on the Internet has increased (Hughes, 2000b; Hughes, 2003b). Social workers might consider contacting their state and federal representatives and requesting the dedication of additional resources for enforcing existing laws. Organizations such as the Salvation Army's "Initiative against Sexual Trafficking" can often provide additional information on these and on other issues related to trafficking. For instance, the Salvation Army provides guidelines for writing letters advocating for funding for the protection of victims and the prosecution of traffickers. Is Legalization the Answer? One of the more controversial proposals to address trafficking is to legalize adult prostitution (Long, 2004). Proponents of this approach argue that the sex
industry should be brought out of the shadows and subjected to government regulation. Subsequendy, child prostitution will be eUminated and women will he protected from violence and exploitation. Little if any research, however, has illustrated that legalizing certain forms of adult prostitution decreases illegal forms of prostitution (Farley, 2004). Rather the converse seems to be more accurate—legalization appears to increase the prevalence of illegal and legal prostitution (Farley, 2004; Raymond, 2004). Illegal activities are shielded behind legal activities. Nations such as the Netherlands, which have legalized prostitution, appear to have become magnets for traffickers and have witnessed significant increases in child prostitution (Raymond, 2003; Sullivan & Jeffreys, 2001). Similarly, in the United States, research suggests that the presence of large adult prostitution markets fosters higher levels of child sexual exploitation (Estes & Weiner, 2001). An Alternative: The Swedish Model A different approach has been pioneered by Sweden (Ekberg, 2004). Under Swedish law, prostitution is viewed as a form of male sexual violence against women and children. Consequently, the men who buy sexual services from women are criminalized. Women are provided with services designed to enable them to leave prostitution. In contrast with neighboring Scandinavian countries that have either legalized or moved toward legalization, prostitution and trafficking appear to have either declined or remained stable in Sweden since implementation of the law (Ekberg, 2004). Significantly, some 80 percent of the Swedish population support the law, with the majority of opponents being men (Raymond, 2003). The Swedish law is extraterritorial. In other words, citizens traveUng abroad are required to obey the law. Accordingly, the adoption of such a law in the United States would mean that U.S. citizens who travel abroad to set up Internet "rape camps" could be charged in U.S. courts. Similarly, the adoption of such a provision would also likely help decrease exploitation of trafficked women and children by overseas U.S. military personnel. The Prosecutorial Remedies and Other Tools to end the Exploitation of Children Today Act of 2003 (P.L. 108-21), or simply the PROTECT Act, represents at least a partial step in this direction. In keeping with the extraterritorial provisions of the
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As part of a larger strategy, sociai workers might consider fostering public norms that seek to protect potential victims fom sexual exploitation. Swedish law, the PROTECT Act criminalizes sex with minors regardless of whether the sexual activity occurs inside or outside of the United States. In other words, Americans who travel abroad to have sex with children can be prosecuted in the U.S. legal system. Social workers might support such initiatives while working toward the implementation of the more comprehensive Swedish model. Any such actions, however, threaten the sex industry's profits. Consequently, wealthy pimps and pornographers often back organizations that seek to portray prostitution as just another career choice (Raymond, 2004). In such cases, social workers might research and document these relationships, the impact that legalization has on women and children in the sex industry, and the effects that legalization has on promoting sexual trafficking. Prior work conducted by the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women and Donna M. Hughes in the Women's Studies Program at the University of Rhode Island may be useful in these and other areas. Developing Salutary Cultural Norms Ekberg (2004) suggested that one of the most important aspects of the Swedish law is its normative function.A societal message is communicated that it is inappropriate to buy and sell women and children for men's sexual pleasure.The converse message is sent by popular music that glorifies the sexual assault of young women and children (Estes & Weiner, 2001). One message helps create an environment in which sexual exploitation is unacceptable, whereas the other contributes to the normalization of sexual exploitation. As part of a larger strategy, social workers might consider fostering public norms that seek to protect potential victims fix)m sexual exploitation. More specifically, workers might advocate for standards in popular media that discourage images that promote violence against women, particularly images that Hnk violence and eroticization. Put differently, popular media should be encouraged to consider
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the role it plays in shaping public norms (Estes & Weiner, 2001). Push Factors
As noted above, sexual trafficking in the United States is part of a wider global problem. Accordingly, it is also important not to ignore what are sometimes called "push factors" in poorer originating countries.These factors, such as poverty or political instability, help create an environment in which it is conducive for traffickers to recruit vulnerable women and children. The social work profession is ideally situated to address push factors because social workers are extensively involved in international social work. In many cases, current efforts either directly or indirectly address push factors,particularly if such efforts are undertaken with a focus on prevention. For instance, economic capacity building, community development, the promotion of stable governments, and programs that foster impartial law enforcement all help to create an environment that is less conducive to traffickers (Roby, 2005). These efforts can be leveraged by considering trafficking dynamics. For instance, microenterprise efforts might be targeted toward young women and children who are especially vulnerable of being trafficked (Bertone, 2000). Similarly, programs might be aimed at victims who are returning to their coinmunities. In the domestic arena, social workers might network with community leaders to develop these and other services. Prevention, for instance, is one area in which multidisciplinary collaborations can be effective. More specifically, public information campaigns, which help expose trafficker's misinformation, may be effective in preventing trafficking (Beyrer,2001). Some evidence suggests that Christian and Muslim leaders in Nigeria who have spoken out against sex trafficking have had some success in turning public opinion against the practice (Okonofua et al.,2004). In short, educating women about the true nature of the sex industry and providing them with other employment options makes it more difficult for traffickers to recruit them. CONCLUSION
Sex trafficking is a significant and growing problem in the United States and the larger global community. One of the distinguishing features of the social work profession is its commitment to
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social justice on behalf of vulnerable populations. In concert with its ethical principles, social workers are called to advocate on behalf of the young women and children who are trafficked into the sex industry. Advocacy strategies should be aimed at protecting victims, prevention efforts, and prosecuting traffickers. Traffickers must be penalized rather than those who are victimized by them.The social work profession must work to ensure that the human rights of those victimized are respected. The young women and children who have been enslaved must not be revictimized, but rather liberated from bondage. REFERENCES
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London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. David R. Hodge, PhD, is assistant professor, Department of Social Work, Arizona State University, and senior nonresident fellow, University of Pennsylvania's Program for Research on Religion and Urban Civil Society. Correspondence can be addressed to the author at Department of Social Work,Arizona State University, P.O. Box 37W0, Phoenix,AZ 85069-7100. Original manuscript received July 13, 200S Final revision received September 1, 2006 Accepted February 8. 2007
COMMENTARY ommentary otiers writers an opportxinity to present their critical observation on current professional issues, social problems, or policy matters. Submissions are expected to build on existing literature in the topic area. Send your manuscript (six double-spaced pages or fewer) to Commentary, Social Work, NASW Press, 750 First Street, NE, Suite 700, Washington, DC 20002-4241.
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Caring for those who have served our country. North Chicago VAMC is located on Rt. 137 (Buckley Road) next to the Naval Training Center Great Lakes in Northern Illinois, approximately 10 rniles from the Wisconsin border. The medical center i i an affiliated facility with appropriate acute care con^ponents including primary and secondary medical care, ambulatory surgery and rehabilitation medicine to support an aging veteran population.
STRESS DISORDER TREATMENT UNIT (SDTU) PROGRAM DIRECTOR The Post- Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Treatment Program at the North Chicago Veterans Affairs Medical Center is seeking an experienced clinician-administrator to serve as its Program Director. The PTSD Treatment program includes an outpatient PTSD Clinical Team (PCT) and a well.established 26-bed residential treatment program with a national reputation for delivering specialized treatment tor PTSD, The PTSD Treatment Program is transforming itself into a Center of Excellence for the evidence-based treatment of combat-related behavioral disorders, a process in which the Program Director Is expected to provide leadership. This position Is open to the following disciplines: Psychiatry, Psychology and Sodal Work. The North Chicago VA Medical Center and its partner institution, the Great Lakes Naval Hospital, are engaged in a dynamic process that will transform the two institutions into a single, state-of-theart, first in the nation Federal Health Care Center by 2010, The Medical Center, a Dean's Committee Hospital, affiliated vuith Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science /the Chicago Medical School, offers residency training in psychiatry and an accredited internship program in psychology and provides a complete continuum of psychiatric treatments. Academic appointments are available for eligible candidates. The Program Director will be responsible for leading, coordinating and directing the activities of the program's multidisciplinary clinical team, providing clinical services, participating in educational activities and stimulating and supporting program-related research. Administrative, clinical, and research experience and knowledge of evidence based intervention! for PTSD are therefore highly desirable. .. . Qualifications Psychiatrist: should be Board Eligible/Board Certified in psychiatry, and hold a current and unrestricted license to practice medicine in a State, Territory, or U.S. Commonwealth. Psychologist: Should have a Doctoral degree (Psy.D., Ph.D,) and completion of an internship in professional psychology from a program accredited by the American Psychological Association and an unrestricted license to practice psychology at the doctoral level in a State, Territory, or U.S. Commonwealth. Sodal Worker Should have a Master's degree m Social Work from a school of Social Work accredited by the CourKil on Social Work Education and be a Licensed Oinical Sodal Worker (LCSW). VA offers a competitive salary and a generous federal benefits package including paid vacation, 10 paid holidays, health & life insurarKe, sick leave, and retirement system plus 401(k). Forward CV, Resume or Application to: Heather A. Ellis, HR Specialist, HRM Service (04), Clement J. Zablocki Medical Center, 5000 West National Avenue, Milwaukee, Wl 53395-1000. Phone: (414) 384-2000, X47249, fax: 414-382-5296. email: heather.ellisSva.gov Requires U,5. Citizenship Random Drug Testing/Equal Opportunity Employer
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APRIL 2008