1.1 Hevea Brasiliensis

Tanaman Industri ( Industry Crops ) AGR 2602

Pengenalan kepada tanaman-tanaman meliputi :  Sifat-sifat botani  Ekologi dan pengaruh sekitaran  Pembiakan dan pengeluaran benih  Kepentingan ekonomi  hevea brasilliensis

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The Rubber Tree Division Family Genus Species

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Magnoliophyta Euphorbiaceae Hevea Hevea brasillensis

Common Names: Rubbertree, jebe, arbre de para, parakautschukbaum, cauchotero de pará, seringueira, seringueira-branca, arbol del caucho, siringa Synonyms: Siphonia brasiliensis Willd. ex A. Juss. Part Used: Leaves, bark, latex There are 11 species of Hevea. hevea brasilliensis

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History Hevea brasiliensis was first found in the Amazon basin South America. It occurs in  

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Bolivia - Beni Brazil - Amapa, Amazonas, Mato Grosso, Para; Columbia - Amozonas; Peru - Huanuco, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Pasco, San Martin hevea brasilliensis

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European contact with rubber began when Christopher Columbus observed waterproof containers and watched ball games in Haiti. He returned to Europe with rubber balls (1493). In 1615, a book was published in which told that the natives obtained gum from trees. Rubber was used for waterproofing of clothing, shoes, and kitchen items. In 1734, the French astronomer de la Condamine observed how natives collected and condensed the "juice" (latex) from the bark of a tree to produce rubber. The name "rubber" was presumably coined in 1770 by the famous chemist Joseph Priestley (discoverer of oxygen), who realized that the substance could erase (rub out) pencil marks. hevea brasilliensis

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In 1736, de la Condamine called this product caoutchouc. The report on rubber making and the samples stirred great publicity in France and the rest of Europe, creating an immediate demand for rubber. The first innovative use of rubber was in 1823 by an English inventor (Hancock) and a Scottish chemist (Macintosh), who were able to dissolve crude rubber and then laminate a thin layer of rubber to a fabric, and thereby manufacture the first waterproof (the raincoat). At the same time, "gumshoes" were imported to New England as footwear for seafarers; In 1839, Goodyear revolutionized the rubber industry by inventing vulcanization, which eliminated the disagreeable physical properties of rubber by combining natural rubber with sulfur and lead through a heat curing process. hevea brasilliensis

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The rubber industry got its biggest business boost by the development of tires, for bicycles and especially for automobiles. Dunlop marketed the pneumatic tire in 1888, and the automobile was invented in 1895. In 1876, Henry A. Wickham, an English adventurer, succeeded in delivering 70,000 seeds of Hevea to the Kew Gardens London for propagation, of which 2397 seeds germinated. In 1877, 22 seedlings were sent from Ceylon to Botanic Gardens, Singapore, where they grew strongly, and the technique of tapping was developed. From there Hevea plants were introduced to Malaysia, Sumatra, and West Java (only two plants). hevea brasilliensis

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By 1900, most of the techniques and agricultural practices required to establish large plantations had been developed.  One key technique was bud grafting. This is essentially a cloning technique which ensures that genetically identical trees can be produced in unlimited numbers.

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The plant Euphorbiaceae family are mostly monoecious herbs, shrubs, and trees, sometimes succulent and cactus-like, and comprise one of the largest families of plants with about 300 genera and 7,500 species The tree can reach a height of over 30m; older trees yield more latex. The latex occurs in latex vessels in the bark, mostly outside the phloem. These vessel spiral up the tree in a right handed spiral which forms an angle of about 30 degrees with the horizontal. hevea brasilliensis

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Latex, as found in nature, is the milky sap of many plants that coagulates on exposure to air. It is a complex emulsion in which proteins, alkaloids, starches, sugars, oil, tannins, resins and gump are found. Stems smooth and straight; trunk unbranched up a long way and then with much-branched leafy canopy; bark grayish. Taproot well-developed Leaves - alternate, trifoliolate, stipulate,  

petioles 7.5–10 cm long leaflets obovate, apically acuminate, entire, basally acute, penninerved, 10–15 cm long, 3–6 cm broad, elliptic-lanceolate in outline hevea brasilliensis

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Flowers Flowers numerous, monoecious, creamy, yellow or green, in axillary pubescent panicles, sweetscented, small;  female flowers apical, the more numerous  male flowers lateral in the inflorescence;  petals absent; Hevea may undergo two flowerings  flowering occurs in February to April and (a lesser flowering) in September and October with winterings in January and February,

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The inflorescence is a panicle of separate staminate and pistillate flowers borne in the axils of basal leaves of new shoots that grow out after wintering. Pistillate flowers are terminal to the central stem and other major branches of the inflorescence. Staminate flowers have two rings of five stamens each borne on a stalk. Pistillate flowers have a compound ovary with three locules topped by three sticky, sessile stigmas. Pistillate flowers then open for a period of three to five days after which the rest of the staminate flowers open. hevea brasilliensis

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Pollination is primarily through insects, specifically midges and thrips. Wind appears to play no role. Fertilization occurs within 24 hours after pollination. Unfertilized pistillate flowers quickly wither and die Hand-pollination for breeding purposes Fruit a 3-lobed, 3-seeded ellipsoidal capsule, each carpel with 1 seed; seeds ellipsoidal, variable in size, 2.5–3 cm long, mottled brown, lustrous, weighing 2–4 g each.

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The Ecology Kesesuaian dari Subtropical Wet (tanpa frost) hingga Tropical Dry ke kawasan hutan hujan tropika antara 15°N dan 10°S latitude, dengan cuaca panas lembab dan suhu antara 23° dan 35°C. pH 4.3 ke 8.0 Tahan tetapi tidak subur di kawasan cuaca ketara kering dan suhu berubah-ubah dan juga tahan air (waterlogging) dan pH antara (4–8) tetapi lebih sesuai dalam acid soils. Kapur adalah tidak sesuai, pengairan yang buruk atau peaty soils perlu dielakkan.

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Hidup subur pada kawasan loamy soil yang baik pengairan, dilindungi tumbuhan asli atau penutup bumi kekacang dan melindungi dari hakisan. Getah tahan penyakit, kemarau, pH tinggi, serangga (insects), laterite, low pH, curam (slopes), virus, dan waterlogging. Getah adalah tanaman Asian, di mana Asia menghasilkan 92% daripada getah asli dunia di Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, South Vietnam

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Cultivation Dibiakan – melalui biji benih atau vegetatif melalui buddings atau kombinasi keduanya. Buah terbuka (meletup) bila masak dan bijinya tersebar sejauh 33 m dari pokok. Biji dikumpul dan disemai segar sebelum hilang kesegaran (tahan 7–10 hari), dan mecapai 4–6 minggu, jika dimasukan dalam serbuk arang atau habuk kayu dengan kelembapan 15–20% dalam kotak khas. Biji cambah dalam 1–3 minggu, bergantung kesesuaian suhu dan kesegaran/ kebernasan benih. Anak untuk dibuat cantuman diambil dari anak benih yang ditanam dengan biji. hevea brasilliensis

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Lebih kurang 100,000 pokok/ha untuk plot semaian, dimana 60,000 ke 70,000 akan mencapai saiz piawai dalam masa 10–15 bulan. Pokok dicabut dan batang dipotong 45– 60 cm, akar tunjang 45–70 cm, dan akar sisi 10 cm. Penanaman diladang dilakukan musim monsun. Penanaman dibuat ikut kontur tanah semulajadi dan pokok terselamat dari angin kencang.

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Penutup bumi ditanam bersebelahan pokok getah untuk menghalang air hujan pada tanah curam dan menolong menyuburkan tanah melalui pengikatan nitrogen. Standard horticultural techniques, seperti nursery rootstocks (tunggul) dan grafting (mencantum) diatasnya, hand pollination, dan vegetatif propagation (cloning) untuk hasilkan pokok seragam juga diamalkan. Hujan tahunan sekitar 2,500 millimetres (100 inches) adalah diperlukan.

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Southeast Asia adalah sesuai untuk tanaman getah dan juga sebahagian South Asia dan West Africa. Penanaman Hevea di Brazil, tempat asalnya, telah hampir dimusnahkan oleh blight diawal abad ke 20.

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Morfologi Akar 

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Akar tunjang : membenam jauh dalam tanah terhenti bila jumpa air –menyalur air melalui proses osmosis Akar jalur besar: tumbuh bhg tepi akar tunjang (lebih kecil) – menguat kedudukan pokok dan menyedut air (tekanan tugor) Akar sisi : tumbuh ditepi akar jalur besar – menguat cengkaman dan menyalur air (tekanan tugor dan osmosis) Akar rerambut : akar terkecil dan aktif, tumbuh tepi akar sisi – hisap air dan makanan kpd pokok. hevea brasilliensis

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Batang 

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Ada empulur (medula): yg dilindungi tisu keras (kayu/xilem) Kulit gubal (kulit hidup): menebal hala kekayu, jadi kayu; menebal kekulit, jadi kulit saluran susu Kulit saluran susu : ada banyak saluran susu dengan kedudukan melingkar dari bawah kiri keatas kanan 3.70 Kulit sel batu : menutup kulit saluran susu, keras dan melindungi saluran susu Kulit hijau : diatas kulit sel batu dan menstabil kulit dibawahnya (supaya bertenaga) kerana ada klorofil hevea brasilliensis

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Kulit gabus : disebelah luar; sebagai dinding pelindung Mata tunas (pada batang atau ranting) : dipanggil tunas sisik dan tunas ketiak. Tak keluar tunas dipanggil tunas pendam, dahan hasil drp tunas ketiak dan tunas sisik adalah tunas ketiak selepas gagang daunnya luruh Daun hidup dihujung gagang dan gagang (petiol) gugur dimusim panas; elak pokok kekurangan makanan dan air; stahun sekali.

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Bunga  

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Bunga berjambak dihujung ranting berdaun Tiap jambak bercabang (paksi) dan ada bunga jantan dan betina Bunga betina : dihujung paksi saja, bunga jantan diseluruh bhg jambak Bunga jantan > bunga betina Kedua bunga : ada lima keping ranggi warna kuning bentuk loceng- bunga betina lebih besar. Bunga getah : bau menarik, debunga dan stigma melekit Pendebungaan : biasanya oleh serangga Gagal pendebungaan : bunga betina layu, gugur dalam masa 2 minggu Berjaya : ovarihevea menjadi buah dan gugur 27 brasilliensis dalam masa 4-5 bulan

Biji  

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Ada 3-5 biji dalam satu buah Embrio hasil gabungan sel jantan dan betina Menurunkan sifat kedua-dua bunga itu Embrio membesar menjadi pokok

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Kulit –terbahagi 3 

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Kulit lembut (flom) – barisan sel-sel menengah, dinding berlubang2 (salur latex) Kulit keras – ada tisu lembut dan bergumpal2 sel, juga ada salur latex (tak teratur) Kulit gabus – penyatuan feloderm dan felogen menjadi kulit sel keras (dalam) dan gabus (luar) Pokok klon : kulit gabus tebal, (30% drp ketebalan kulit), pokok cantum : 10% hevea brasilliensis

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Semaian Membiak benih getah secara;  Seksual  Pendebungaan  Semulajadi  Tampang  Keratan  Tot  Lenturan  Cantuman sanding hevea brasilliensis

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 Cantuman biji  Tisu didik  Cantuman tunas  Tunas

perang  Tunas hijau  Tunas hijau muda

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Pendebungaan –proses di mana debunga dari jantan dibawa ke stigma bunga betina 

Melalui angin/ serangga  Sifat berbeza antaranya  Sesuai untuk mendapatkan biji untuk pokok stok

(bijinya banyak)

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Pendebungaan tangan  Dibuat 5-8 minggu sebelum bunga kembang  Cepudebunga drp debunga klon dikehendaki

didebungakan kepada stigma bunga betina  Akan berputik 5-10 hari lepas pendebungaan  Bulan ke 4 disalut dengan jala –supaya tidak terbang  Kejayaan : 5-15% , seorang pekerja mampu membuat 120 kuntum sehari hevea brasilliensis

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Penyediaan biji benih cambah Biji benih segar dari klon terpilih (sebagai pokok penanti); 

PB5/51, RRIM623, RRIM 712, RRIM 901, PB 217, PB 235 dan GT 1

Diambil dari kaw. ditetapkan (pungutan pertama dibuang) ambil pungutan seterusnya.   

Biji segar berkilat (berat 220 biji= 1kg) Musim gugur Ogos – Sept dan Feb. – Mac Hendak simpan lama bungkus dengan belapik abuk kayu 20% kelembapan atau abuk arang 20% kelambapan hevea brasilliensis

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Batas cambah Batas dibuat drp tanah gembur, pasir sungai atau abuk kayu (tiada kimia)   

Saiz 15cm tinggi x 100 cm lebar 1 meter prs = 1000 biji 3 jenis batas  Kekal (dibuat dg konkrit)  Separuh kekal (kotak papan)  Sementara (naikan tanah)

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Bina para 100-150 cm tinggi, atap daun kelapa 30% telus cahaya. Biji disusun rapat2 (selapis) dgn dada kebawah (mudah akar ulung keluar) dan ditimbus separuh biji. hevea brasilliensis

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Mengubah Siram batas cambah Cabut benih (hari ke 14 - 21) bila terbit akar ulung (2.5 cm), guna kayu kecil. Semai dlm polibeg (secepat mungkin) 

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Akar ulung kebawah (saiz polibeg 15cm x 33 cm) Guna 2 biji/ polibeg (jarak 5 cm) Lebihkan 15 – 20% semaian dari keperluan

Biarkan benih subur saja (buat penakaian yang taksubur) dibulan pertama dlm polibeg hevea brasilliensis

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Baja bila berumur 3-5 bln 

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baja lepas ansur – ‘kokei nugget’ 6gm ( 2 minggu lepas cambah) baja foliar – ‘Byfolan’ dicampur racun kulat Baja foliar – ‘Urea’ pada pokok kekuningan daun

Kawalan perosak (tikus & siput) dgn umpan dan serangga dgn Rogor 40, Thiodan35 dll. Kawalan penyakit  

Odium – sulfur, Collectotrichum – Daconil, Antarcol

Siram 2x sehari (secara hevea brasilliensis springkler)

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Cantuman Faedah   

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Hasil latex lebih tinggi Hasil seragam Kurang kerja dan belanja menanam dan menjaga Mudah dikenali Dapat memilih klon yang sesuai dengan tanah dan kawasan hevea brasilliensis

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Jenis cantuman 

Cantuman muda/ hijau  Rekaan H.R Hurov (Sabah 1958, Malaya

Tinley 1960)  Mata tunas : dari ‘bush nursery’ (umur 56 minggu) 1 kaki dgn 3-4 mata tunas  Pokok penanti : berumur > 6 bulan (hijau) dan 2½ bln (muda)  Musim sesuai : sepanjang musim  Dicantasan lepas 3-4 minggu (20-25cm dari tapak cantuman.  Buang tunas liar.

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Cantuman perang (biasa)  Rekaan Van Helten (Sumatra 1917),

Milsum (Malaya 1919/20) dan diperbaiki Mann (1926)  Mata tunas : 12-18 bln, kulit perang 2 ela (1.8m) dgn 20-30 mata tunas.  Pokok penanti : berumur 10-18 bln (3 in lilitan dari 4 in paras tanah)  Musim sesuai : Mac –April dan Ogs – Jan (waktu pagi), elak musim kemarau hevea brasilliensis

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Mengubah Setelah mencapai 2-3 tingkat daun (daun hujung keras sepenuhnya) Untuk benih lanjutan (5-6 pusaran daun) 

Ubah kedalam polibeg 25cm x 51cm (11 kg tanah)

Mengubah benih lanjutan (tanpa polibeg) 

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10 hari sebelum ubah – pangkas batang 275 cm dari tanah (rawat luka) Cabut secara manual atau ‘back-hoe’ Gunting akar sekeliling akar tunjang 60 cm, hevea brasilliensis 40 buang akar tunjang bercabang. (TC)

The disease About 90 species of fungi are known to attack Hevea trees, the most prevalent ones being are  Colletotrichum heveae (leaf spot),  Fomes lamaensis (brown root rot),  Gloeosporium heveae (die-back),  Oidium heveae (powdery mildew),  Pellicularis salmonicolor (pink disease),  Phytophthora palmivora (causing fruit rot, leaf-fall, black thread, and die-back),  Polystichus occidentalis and P. personii (white spongy rot),  Sphaerella heveae (rim bright),  Sphaerostilbe repens (red rot) and  Ustulina maxima (charcoal rot). hevea brasilliensis

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It is also attacked by Bacterium albilineans, and parasitized by Loranthus spp. Nematodes isolated from Hevea brasiliensis include: Helicotylenchus cavenessi, H.dihystera, H. erythrinae, Meloidogyne incognita acrita, M.javanica, Pratylenchus coffeae, P. brachyurus.

Insect pests include the following species:  Scale insects (Aspidiotus cyanophylli and Parasaissetia nigra).  White ants cause serious damage to trees at all ages.  Snails can be serious pests to young trees.  Various animals can damage the trunks hevea brasilliensis

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Three types of root disease, classified as  white,  red, and  brown, are controlled by cutting away diseased tissue and applying prophylactic coatings. Panel diseases, classified as –  black stripe,  moldy rot, and  panel necrosis, are minimized by spraying or coating specific fungicides. hevea brasilliensis

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Stem disease – consisting of  pink disease,  stem canker, and  dieback is reduced by brushing on specific fungicides. Leaf disease - consisting of abnormal leaf fall,  Gloeosporium leaf disease,  powdery mildew, and  bird's eye spot, is controlled by a variety of sprays, including copper oxychloride, sulfur dust, and others applied by spray or dusting techniques. hevea brasilliensis

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Harvesting Source of Hevea or Para Rubber, obtained by tapping the trunks of the trees. Tapping begins when trees are 5–8 years old, depending on the area, and increases every year until a maximum at about 20 years, then yield sustained for 40–50 years or more. Trees are tapped early in morning when flow of latex is highest; flow decreases with temperature and usually ceases in about 3 hours. Tapping stands of 250–300 trees per hectare are recommended, obtained by thinning budwood densities of 375 to 450 or seedling densities of 500 to 600. hevea brasilliensis

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The cut must be neither too deep, nor too thick. Either will reduce the productive life of the tree. This starts the latex flowing, and the tapper leaves leaves a little cup underneath the cut. Tapping consists of removal by excision of a thin cut of bark about 1 mm deep at regular intervals, thus opening the latex vessels in the bark, which are arranged in concentric cylinders and run in counter-clockwise spirals up the trunk. The cuts run half-way around the trunk, but may encircle the tree.

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Special knives are used to cut the proper depth and angle. Latex is collected through a small spout fixed in the bark in cups placed at end of cut, large enough to collect one-day's flow. An average tapper can tap 200–300 trees in 3 hours. Then the tapper empties the cups into large pails or buckets, sometimes adding a few drops of dilute ammonium solution to prevent coagulation.

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Yields and Economics Average prewar yields for unselected trees was about 300–450 kg latex/ha; and 700–2,000 kg latex/ha for improved plantings. Average number of tappings per year is 120–140 in India, 160 in Malaysia. With trees cultivated at a density of 375 to 450 per hectare (150 to 200 per acre), approximately from hybrid verity rubber 3,500 to 4,500 kilograms of rubber can be produced per hectare per year Rubber yield can be increased by treating the bark below the tap with yield-stimulating mixtures containing plant hormones and selective weed-killers with hormone properties, hevea brasilliensis

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The latex coagulates with the aid of acetic acid, formic acid. Three major Asian producers Malaysia,  Indonesia, and  Thailand account for 80 percent of the world total. 

Two other Asian producers Sri Lanka and India and  two African producers - Liberia and Nigeria account together for another 12 percent of the world total. 

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Hevea is prone to many diseases 

South American Leaf Blight caused by Michocyclus ulei. This disease is native to the Amazon and continues to limit the growth of the rubber industry in Brazil.

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Function and usage Cured rubber used for all types of rubber products. Seeds are source of Para Rubber seed oil, recommended for manufacture of soap. (seeds can be eaten as a famine food after processing. Kernels (50–60% of the seed) contain 40– 50% of a semi-drying pale yellow oil, used in soap making, paints, varnishes, and is effective against houseflies and lice. Car tires have 12.5-28% natural rubber (higher in radial tires), truck and bus tires 5075%, and aircraft tires 90-100%, whereas soft bicycle tires are synthetic only. hevea brasilliensis

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NR Latex Cuplump Latex concentrate Convensional TSR Special Rubber (HA, LA) (RSS,SMR (SMR L, (ENR, LNR) ADS, CV) DPNR) NR=natural rubber SMR=standard Malaysian Rubber TSR Secialty TSR TSR=technically specified R (SMR 10 & 20) ENR=Epoxidised Natural Rubber (SMR 10&20Natural CV Rubber DPNR =Deproteinised SMR LNR=Liquid Natural Rubber GP smoked sheets house RSS= ribbed grades) hevea brasilliensis

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Area to be planted to rubber trees is cleared, then lined and marked for roads and drainage. Planting pits are dug,    

75 x 75 x 75 cm, or 90 x 90 x 90 cm, and filled with surface soil and manure. Seedlings are raised in nurseries or directly in the field.

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